Volcanic activity. Volcanoes and volcanic activity

As of August 30, 2016, high eruptive activity is observed on 28 volcanoes in the world.

The main event of the current week was a series of earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 6.2 , shaking the Italian regions of Lazio and Umbria since Tuesday August 23, 2016.

The tremors are tectonic in nature, but it is worth noting that on the territory of Lazio and in neighboring Campania there isseveral potentially active volcanoes, which may be susceptible to the shaking of the earth's mountain. This is Collie Albanion the outskirts of Rome, and the Vulsini caldera complex, which, according to historical chronicles, last erupted in 104 BC.

After a devastating earthquake of magnitude 6.0 (according to other sources, 6.2) in Central Italy on August 24, INGV seismologists recorded a total of 2553 localized seismic events.

129 earthquakes were between magnitude 3.0 and 4.0; 12 tremors - with a magnitude from 4.0 to 5.0, one seismic event occurred with a magnitude of 5.4.

Activity at Mount Etna has generally decreased slightly in recent weeks and tremors are currently low. The emissions of hot, incandescent gases and ash did not stop, but together with weak Strombolian-type activity from the new vent and the Voragine crater, they became less pronounced. Sporadic ash eruptions were observed intermittently.

Klyuchevskoy (Kamchatka, Russia).

An explosive eruption continues at the summit with the release of volcanic bombs from the summit crater and strong steam and gas activity in two volcanic centers. Throughout the week, a large thermal anomaly was observed in the Klyuchevskoye area.

On August 28, 2016, ash was released to a height of 6 km above sea level, and the ash plume stretched northeast of the volcano. A lava flow about 1.5 kilometers long moved along the southwestern slope of the giant.

Klyuchevskoy volcano is the most active and powerful basalt volcano in the Kuril-Kamchatka volcanic region. It is located in the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes in the northern part of the Central Kamchatka Depression on the right bank of the Kamchatka River. The closest settlement to the volcano is the village of Klyuchi, which is located approximately 30 km from the giant. The height of Klyuchevsky volcano is about 4850 m. It is the highest active volcano in Europe and Asia.

The previous eruption of Klyuchevsky volcano began on January 1 and ended on March 24, 2015. The current volcanic eruption began on April 3.

Bagan Volcano erupts again in Papua New Guinea.

Bagan Volcano is located on the island of Bougainville, part of the province of the same name, in Papua New Guinea.

Bagana has the shape of a lava cone, 1750 meters high. Located west of the volcano Billy Mitchell. It is a young active volcano and has been erupting continuously since the 18th century. The eruptions consist of lava and pyroclastic flows.

Ash emissions are occurring again at the Bagan Volcano in Papua New Guinea, producing an ash plume approximately 2.1 km high. The ejection drifted west from the giant on August 29, and no negative consequences of the eruption were recorded.

The latest satellite imagery shows a narrow stream of mostly gas and possibly some ash 70 km west of Bougainville Island. A moderate thermal hot spot is visible in Moody's data and has increased recently. This suggests that the volcano's activity has increased recently. Bagan Volcano is located on the island of Bougainville in the province of the same name in Papua New Guinea.

Since 1842, the volcano has made its presence known more than 30 times. The last emission of volcanic ash from the volcano occurred between August 1-7, 2012 and reached a height of 3000 meters; the ash plume traveled northwest from the volcano, covering a distance of 37 kilometers.

Colim volcano eruptionA.

The Colima volcano in Mexico, also known as the “Volcano of Fire,” on Monday, August 29, ejected a column of gas and ash to a height of about 2.4 thousand meters.The volcano is part of the so-called "Pacific Ring of Fire", an area around the perimeter of the Pacific Ocean that contains the majority of active volcanoes and many earthquakes. Mexico's most active volcano, it has erupted more than 40 times since 1576. Cordillera mountain system, the form of the volcano is stratovolcano. Consists of 2 conical peaks; the highest of them (Nevado de Colima, 4,625 m) is an extinct volcano, covered with snow most of the year. Another peak is the active Colima volcano, or Volcán de Fuego de Colima (“Fire Volcano”), 3,846 m high, called the Mexican Vesuvius.

In total, there are more than 3 thousand volcanoes in Mexico, but only 14 of them are considered active.

As stated in the report of the ALLATRA SCIENCE community of scientists:

“Large-scale natural disasters that occur cyclically on the planet have already happened more than once in the history of the Earth and human civilization. But what lessons does this scientific knowledge, which testifies to past universal planetary tragedies, teach? ... The consequences and troubles that planetary cataclysms bring go far beyond the “hotbed” individual state and, one way or another, affect all inhabitants of the Earth. A sharp increase in seismic and volcanic activity leads to immediate catastrophic consequences in certain regions. Entire states disappear from the face of the Earth, people die, many are left homeless and without a means of subsistence, famine and large-scale epidemics begin...

People need to throw away all frameworks and conventions, they need to consolidate here and now. Nature does not look at ranks and ranks when it unleashes its thousand-year wrath, and only the manifestation of true community between people, based on human kindness, can give humanity a chance to survive...”

Various statements alarming people about the approach of some kind of global geological catastrophe began to appear in the media and in some scientific publications.

The press service of the World Organization for Scientific Cooperation “Science Without Borders” (WOSCO SWB) asked a famous scientist - geophysicist, specialist in the field of seismology and geodynamics, Vice-President of the International Academy of Sciences H&E (Austria, Innsbruck), Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences - to comment on the situation , Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences, Director of the Research Institute for Forecasting and Studying Earthquakes Elchin Khalilov.

Dear Professor Khalilov, recently a lot of information has appeared in the media about the approaching global natural disaster. Some associate this with the possibility of a so-called polar reversal or change of sign of the Earth’s north and south magnetic poles, others predict catastrophic climate changes and global flooding of vast land areas, others predict earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis of incredible force. Other forecasts are based on the possibility of a huge asteroid passing close to the Earth’s orbit, which, under its gravitational influence, could cause global natural disasters on Earth. What should we really believe? Please comment on this situation.

I have been researching seismic and volcanic activity from the perspective of global geodynamic processes for more than 25 years. All these years of research I have been conducting together with an outstanding scientist of our time, a world-famous Russian geologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy of Sciences and many national and international academies, Honorary President of the International Academy of Sciences (health and ecology), Honored Professor of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University Viktor Efimovich Khain. But I want to especially emphasize that everything I have said is based on our many years of joint research.

First of all, I would like to note that many of the disturbing factors that you mentioned do exist, but perhaps they are not always correctly interpreted. The fact is that the research we conducted together with famous scientists, academicians V. Khain, Sh. Mekhtiev and T. Ismailzade, made it possible for the first time to establish an unusual modern cyclicity in the manifestations of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on our planet. It has long been noted that at certain periods of time, as if by a special command, strong earthquakes begin to occur almost simultaneously and volcanoes erupt in different parts of the planet, then a lull also suddenly sets in.

In fact, research results have shown that this cyclicity in the manifestations of strong earthquakes and volcanic eruptions is not at all simple. In particular, it turned out that while earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are activated in some zones (in the Earth’s compression belts), in other zones they subside (in the Earth’s extension belts), then the reverse process occurs, seismic and volcanic activity in the Earth’s compression belts Activity in the Earth's stretch zones decreases and increases.

For geologists, it is obvious that earthquakes and volcanoes are an excellent indicator of tectonic activity on the planet. That is, if earthquakes in the Earth’s compression belts are activated, this means that compression processes on the planet have intensified; if activation occurs in the Earth’s extension zones, this means that extension processes are intensifying.

The results of our research were recognized as a scientific discovery in 2003.

- What comes from this and where are the compression and extension zones of the Earth located?

The Earth's compression and extension belts are planetary, relatively narrow and gigantic areas of volcanic and seismic activity, in which more than 80% of the energy of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions of the world is released. For a better understanding, without going into the wilds of geology, I will explain that the uppermost shell of our planet is divided into giant blocks that move horizontally relative to each other. They are called lithospheric plates. So, almost all the strong earthquakes and volcanoes in the world are concentrated at the boundaries of these plates. Where the plates diverge, processes of extension of the Earth's lithosphere occur, and where they collide, processes of compression occur.

Almost along the central axis of the entire world ocean there are oceanic rift zones - giant faults that reflect the boundaries of lithospheric plates, where they diverge.

It is here that the Earth's lithosphere undergoes stretching and renewal. In some places, these zones also originate on continents, for example, a giant rift zone runs in the meridional direction along the Eastern part of Africa, in the area of Lake Baikal, through Iceland.

The Earth's compression belts are mainly giant mountain systems, and in the oceans there are deep-sea depressions and ridges of islands bordering them, often of volcanic origin. Classic giant compression belts of the Earth are the mountain ranges running along the western part of the continents of North and South America, the Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt - a mountain range starting from the Alpine mountains and reaching the Himalayas, capturing parts of China and India. The Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt includes some countries of the Middle and Near East, countries of Southern and Southeast Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia and part of Southeast Asia.

If we talk about the young and, perhaps, the most active compression belts of the Earth, these are mainly the countries of the so-called ring of fire.

The "Ring of Fire" is a 40,000-kilometer-long, horseshoe-shaped band of volcanoes and tectonic faults that encircles the Pacific Ocean, running along the coasts of South and North America to southern Alaska, then turning toward Japan, (including the Russian Far East), the Philippines and Indonesia and ending in the region of the island of New Guinea, New Zealand and southwestern Oceania. It is in the “Ring of Fire” that more than 80% of the approximately one and a half thousand known active volcanoes on the planet are located.

For a better understanding, we have shown a map on which all the zones I have designated are indicated.

- What can we expect in the near future in the regions you indicated?

I really want to reassure readers and say that no increase in seismic and volcanic activity is expected, which I have repeatedly done in many of my statements in past years. But, unfortunately, I cannot do this now, since it is my duty as a scientist to provide objective information to society, to try to predict the further development of events. Actually, this is the main meaning of seismology and volcanology, otherwise why do these studies need to be done?

It has now become obvious that the Earth should be considered as an integral element of the cosmos, inextricably linked with the processes occurring in it. The famous Russian scientist A.L. Chizhevsky, back in the 20s of the last century, devoted many scientific works to studying the influence of solar activity on earthly processes of a biological, socio-psychological and geological nature.

Many scientists around the world confirm the fact of the influence of solar activity on the activation of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, but still there is some ambiguity in these results. In our research with the participation of academicians V. Khain and Sh. Mekhtiev, we were able to discover new aspects in this issue. It turned out that solar activity has a different effect on the activation of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in different regions of our planet. For example, with an increase in solar activity, the activity of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the Earth's compression belts increases, and in extension belts, on the contrary, it decreases.

Moreover, what is especially important is that the higher the amplitude of the solar activity cycle, the higher the seismic and volcanic activity.

At the same time, the non-simultaneity of planetary processes of compression and extension indicates the possibility of periodic changes in the radius of the Earth within a few centimeters, which, in our opinion, is reflected in changes in the angular velocity of its rotation.

The most pronounced cycle of solar activity is considered to be the 11-year cycle. Since the beginning of regular observation of sunspots, 23 cycles of solar activity have been officially recorded, with the 23rd cycle occurring in 2001. Surely experts remember that from the end of 1999 to 2004 there were many catastrophic earthquakes that claimed more than half a million human lives. The year 2007 can be called the year of minimum solar activity, but since 2008 it began to increase again. It would seem, well, what’s unusual here, we’ve gone through 23 cycles before this, well, another one will pass. Unfortunately, the 24th cycle is predicted to be unusual.

For any forecasts, first of all, process models are created. The most accurate model of sunspot formation was developed in 2004 by a group of scientists working under the leadership of Dr. Mausumi Dikpati from the US National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR). According to their calculations, the magnetic structures that form the sunspots originate in the region of the Sun's equator. There they are “imprinted” into the plasma and move with it towards the poles. Having reached the pole, the plasma plunges into the star to a depth of about 200 thousand km. From there, it begins to flow back towards the equator at a speed of 1 m/sec. One such circle corresponds to the solar activity cycle - 17–22 years. The researchers called their model the “dynamo transport model of magnetic flux.” We are now at the beginning of the 24th 11-year solar cycle. Having included data on the 22 preceding the 23rd cycle into the model, scientists calculated what the 23rd cycle should be like. The result coincided with what we observed by 98%. Having thus tested their model, the researchers at the beginning of 2006 calculated the 24th cycle of solar activity, the peak of which would be in 2012.

It is predicted that the 24th cycle of solar activity will be 1.5 times more powerful than the previous 23rd. This means that the number and energy of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions during this period will be significantly higher than all previous ones. In addition, we have established that during this period the maxima of solar activity cycles of at least three orders of magnitude will coincide, which should lead to a kind of energy resonance.

Our studies have shown that there is some inertia in the increase in seismic and volcanic activity in relation to solar activity. That is, if the peak of solar activity occurs in 2012, then the maximum of seismic and volcanic activity will occur in 2012–2015. I would like to especially emphasize that this conclusion is confirmed by the cyclicities we have established in the activity of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the compression belts of our planet, the peaks of which also occur during this period. In a word, from 2012 to 2015 it will be, to put it mildly, “a bit hot” on our planet.

- Which countries, in your opinion, will be most exposed to natural disasters?

I’ll start, first of all, with the “ring of fire” - I listed the regions included in this zone above. The Ring of Fire will live up to its name, for it is there that the largest number of the world's largest active volcanoes are located.

The strongest earthquakes will also occur there. In second place in terms of the level of seismic activity (but not volcanic activity), I would put the Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt, and in it, the most dangerous territories are in the northwestern part of India, China, Pakistan and Afghanistan, the southern part of the Central Asian republics, Iran, countries of the Caucasus, Turkey, Italy, Greece. In Italy there is also a high probability of the activation of the volcanoes Etna and Vesuvius on its territory during the noted period. Along with these areas, seismic activity is expected to increase at a similar level along the entire western coast of North and South America.

- You have listed so many territories that it becomes creepy. Where will it not shake so much?

Of course, there are many areas that will not be affected by seismic and volcanic activity - these are the so-called intraplate zones or platforms.

For example, this is the entire central and northern part of Russia, the eastern part of Scandinavia, the central and northern parts of Europe, Australia, Greenland, the entire western part of the African continent, the eastern part of South and North America and the entire northern part of North America. So, you can definitely move to these zones. But I want to warn you that some of them may be subject to natural disasters of a different nature.

- Well, are you taking away your last hope? What other surprises does nature have in store for us?

I would like to remind you that at the beginning of our conversation you mentioned alarming information regarding a possible change in the signs of the Earth’s magnetic poles.

So, I would like to dwell on this in a little more detail. The fact is that many often identify the magnetic and geographic poles of the Earth. But in fact, these are completely different concepts and their location does not coincide.

The geomagnetic field is not so constant and it changes from time to time.

The role of the geomagnetic field for the existence and development of life on Earth is difficult to overestimate, because the force lines of the Earth’s magnetic field create a kind of magnetic screen around the planet that protects the Earth’s surface from cosmic rays and the flow of high-energy charged particles that are destructive to all living things.

The latest data on the state of the Arctic magnetic pole (moving towards the East Siberian world magnetic anomaly through the Arctic Ocean) showed that at the beginning of 2002, the drift speed of the north magnetic pole increased from 10 km/year in the 70s to 40 km/year in 2001.

In addition, according to IZMIRAN (Russia, Moscow), there is a drop in the strength of the earth’s magnetic field, and quite unevenly. According to scientists from IZMIRAN, the acceleration of the movement of the poles (on average by 3 km/year) and their movement along the corridors of magnetic pole inversion (more than 400 paleoinversions made it possible to identify these corridors) leads to the assumption that this movement of the poles should not be seen as an excursion , but a reversal of the Earth's magnetic field.

In 2007, the Danish Space Research Center, after analyzing the latest data obtained from a satellite monitoring the Earth's magnetic fields, came to disappointing conclusions. According to Danish scientists, intensive preparation of the Earth's geomagnetic field for the inversion of magnetic poles is taking place and this may happen much earlier than expected.

But I would like to especially note that geophysicists cannot help but be alarmed by the fact that the movement of the magnetic poles has accelerated almost fivefold over the past four decades. What underlies the movements of the magnetic poles? First of all, these are processes occurring in the Earth's core. If the magnetic poles moved much faster, this meant that the energy in the Earth’s core began to increase significantly. At the same time, as is known, it is the deep energy processes in the Earth’s core that set in motion giant convective flows in the mantle, which, in turn, move lithospheric plates, at the boundaries of which earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur.

Consequently, the fivefold acceleration of the movement of the magnetic poles indicates that the speed and scale of energy processes in the bowels of our planet have increased sharply, which corresponds to our conclusions about the approach of a period of unusually high levels of seismic and volcanic activity.

As for climate change, it will be a consequence of the above processes.

What do you mean by this, that global climate change will be associated with earthquakes and volcanic eruptions?

You know, in the last decade, a lot of work has been devoted to global climate change and, in most of them, the main role in global warming is given to man-made activities. But is this really so?

In our works, together with Viktor Efimovich Khain, we carried out detailed comparisons of graphs of the cyclicity of volcanic activity over the past 150 years and average annual temperature changes on our planet. So, the result exceeded all our expectations. Firstly, in terms of shape and periods of cycles, the graphs almost repeat each other. But, on the other hand, the cycles on the graph of increasing temperatures are about 15 years behind the cycles of increasing volcanic activity. This delay is based on a cause-and-effect relationship between these two processes.

What is the mechanism of cause-and-effect relationship between volcanic activity and temperature changes on Earth? An increase in the number of volcanic eruptions leads to an increase in the entry of volcanic gases into the atmosphere, which contribute to an increase in the greenhouse effect and, as a consequence, lead to an increase in atmospheric temperature. From 1860 to 2000, the number of volcanic eruptions increased by 80%.

Almost doubling the average annual number of volcanic eruptions should lead to a doubling of volcanic gases entering the atmosphere and, above all, CO2, which plays a leading role in the formation of the greenhouse effect and an increase in the average annual temperature on Earth.

Based on the patterns we have established, an attempt has been made to make a long-term forecast of both changes in the volcanic activity of the Earth’s compression belts and global changes in the average temperature on our planet until 2060.

A global increase in the average annual temperature on Earth, against the background of minor variations, according to the results of our research, will be observed from 2020 to 2050.

An increase in average annual temperature, naturally, will be accompanied by melting ice, an increase in the level of the world's oceans and precipitation falling on the Earth.

Do you want to say that even if people are saved from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, they will be overtaken by another disaster - global flooding of gigantic land areas?

I would not like to be unfounded, so I will resort to the help of official data from the Intergovernmental Commission on Climate Change (IPCC) http://www.ipcc.ch/ As follows from the reports of this commission, “greenhouse” warming is coming, as a result of which they may melt some ice sheets and sea levels will rise by 5-7 m in just decades. This will be a truly global catastrophe: entire countries (for example, Holland), the largest cities in the world - New York, Tokyo, St. Petersburg, etc. - will be under water (IPCC, 2007).

The difference between our conclusions and the IPCC commission is only in assessing the scale of the geological factor in global warming. If the commission assigns the main role to technogenic human activity, then we believe that the role of natural processes is significantly higher. In our opinion, it is impossible to single out global climate changes as a separate independent channel in isolation from the general context of the geological development of the Earth.

True, this doesn’t make it any easier for people. Although, it is possible that the realization that it is not so much human civilization that is to blame for all this, but nature, somewhat reduces our sense of guilt before future generations.

- Are you saying that the end of the world is coming?

Of course not - this is not the end of the world, but this is one of the most difficult stages in the life of human civilization. During this period, we can expect a large number of human casualties, an aggravation of the global economic crisis, destructuring of public administration systems and international coordination of actions. But in certain regions it will be relatively calm and these territories can be identified in advance in order to prepare the appropriate infrastructure for them in advance.

You predict a difficult fate for entire generations, but do you and Academician Viktor Efimovich Khain have any proposals, if not for preventing, then at least for some reduction in the catastrophic consequences of impending cataclysms?

Of course there are and I will list them here:

· First of all, it is necessary to adopt the UN Framework Convention on Global Natural Disasters, following the example of the adoption in 1992 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in response to the growing body of scientific evidence that global climate change is determined by anthropogenic changes in the content of greenhouse gases atmospheric gases.

· At the second stage, it is necessary to create a special International Intergovernmental Commission at the UN following the example of the Intergovernmental Commission on Climate Change (IPCC) with the inclusion of a special expert group uniting the world's leading scientists in the fields of seismology, volcanology, geodynamics, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, etc. .

· At the third stage, it is necessary, as a matter of urgency, to develop and approve the UN International Program for the study and forecasting of the development of seismic and volcanic situations in conjunction with global climate change.

· The last and final stage of this process should be the creation of a single international financial fund and financial mechanism for preparing humanity for possible global natural disasters on a planetary scale. This stage will also include identifying the most stable and safe territories on our planet and creating special infrastructure on them to accommodate and support a large number of refugees, who will become the basis for the emergence of new centers of human civilization.

In conclusion, I would like to emphasize that only by combining our efforts, economic, technical and human resources, regardless of race, culture and religion, will human civilization be able to cross the great threshold that nature has prepared for it. It is this stage of her life that will give rise to the creation of a new formation of human society with a completely new positive thinking.

Thank you very much for such a detailed, scientifically sound and interesting interview. In conclusion, we would like to clarify where scientists and specialists can get acquainted with the results of your research?

Firstly, I want to inform you that recently, our joint monograph with Academician Viktor Efimovich Khain was published by the international publishing house SWB: Khain V.E., Khalilov E.N. Spatiotemporal patterns of seismic and volcanic activity. Bourgas, S.W.B., 2008. ISBN 978-9952-451-00-9

Considering the great interest in the problem, in agreement with the publishing house S WB, the book is posted for free use in the International Scientific Electronic Library of the World Organization for Scientific Cooperation - WOSCO Science Without Borders: www.wosco.org, as well as on the website: www.khalilov.biz

But some of the problems raised in the interview can be found right now in the articles:

V.E.Khain, E.N.Khalilov. ABOUT THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR ACTIVITY ON SEISMIC AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY: LONG-TERM FORECAST

V.E.Khain, E.N.Khalilov. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND CYCLICITY OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

On planet Earth, evidence of ongoing processes within the earth's crust manifests itself daily and in different ways. During our travels, we visited a number of active and extinct volcanoes around the world, and also visited Yellowstone National Park, located in the crater of a supervolcano, where today there are many active geothermal springs and geysers. All these places are united by the fact that active processes occurring in the earth’s crust today or hundreds of millions of years ago influenced and continue to influence our planet and the climate on it. They are the cause of changes in flora and fauna, as well as a catalyst for evolution. Let's try to briefly understand what volcanic activity causes to our planet, as well as what post-volcanic phenomena occur after eruptions.

Volcanoes themselves are not as dangerous as we used to think. We must be wary first of all of the various emerging accompanying phenomena during volcanic eruptions:

Volcanic phenomena- occur simultaneously with volcanic eruptions.
- Rock avalanches- are formed during vertically directed explosions and contain fragments of previous and freshly erupted lavas.
- Scorching clouds- have different origins, have high mobility (up to 90 km/h) due to hot gases (up to 900 degrees) released by ash particles. They are able to burn in a short time everything that comes their way.
- Mud and water flows are formed during the rapid melting of snow caps and glaciers on the slopes of volcanoes during their eruption.

Post-volcanic phenomena- arise and occur after volcanic activity subsides, and are associated with the release of volcanic gases, numerous gas-steam jets and hot water with superheated steam.
- Release of volcanic gases - fumaroles. They come in dry high-temperature varieties (over 500 degrees), sulphurous (hydrogen sulfide) - solfataras (temperature from 100 to 300 degrees) and cold carbon dioxide - mofets (temperature below 100 degrees)
- Thermal Baths— underground sources of hot water in areas of volcanism. The waters in them are mineralized with various impurities: chloride, carbonate, sulfate, mixed. Often, deposits of siliceous or calcareous tuffs occur around such sources. Thermal baths are common in Kamchatka, Iceland, the Baikal region, the Caucasus and Italy.
- Geysers- these are hot springs consisting of water and steam, which periodically throw water with superheated steam up to a height of hundreds of meters. The most famous valleys of geysers are located in Kamchatka, New Zealand, Iceland, the USA and Japan. Geysers are usually found in fault zones in the earth's crust. The water in them contains sodium chloride impurities with a mineralization of about 2.5 grams per liter and is characterized by a varied composition. Hot water erupting from the geyser under the influence of steam carries a large amount of dissolved minerals - mainly silicon oxide, which are deposited on the walls of the geyser and around its outlet channel - the vent, forming a funnel-shaped tube on the surface of the Earth. The resulting deposits form terraces around the geyser in the form of deposits or large cones - geyserite structures.
- Mud volcanoes- cone-shaped hills of different diameters and heights formed by loose sediments. Due to the accumulation of gases and superheated water vapor coming from below through cracks in the earth's crust, an eruption of liquid mud occurs. If the mud is so liquid that it cannot harden over time, and new eruptions only support the process of mud formation and mixing, then the result is a mud cauldron.

Because of its unpredictability, it greatly influences the processes of normal life on earth. Everyone is well aware of examples of volcanic lava flowing out and its destructive properties for all living things around. We also know firsthand what happens to the atmosphere when clouds of ash rise into the air; we immediately remember the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland, which stopped air traffic with many countries for several weeks, resulting in a real transport collapse in Europe.

Interesting fact: few people know that the islands were formed at the site of volcanic activity; most of them are of volcanic origin and they are located on the tops of ancient underwater volcanoes.

Also, in addition to the most famous volcanic phenomenon - a volcanic eruption, there are also lesser known volcanic and post-volcanic phenomena that occur in our lives. We are talking about mud flows, geothermal springs, thermal baths and geysers. I will tell you more about them.

Such places usually make the biggest impression on a trip, because they are completely different from the usual landscapes. They are simply different to perceive, and that makes the experience of personal acquaintance with them valuable. Therefore, we are glad that we visited some of the valleys of geysers in person, and plan to see others someday! And now we will tell you about volcanic activity and post-volcanic phenomena in more detail and illustrate them with photographs from our travels.

Mud volcano at an altitude of 4300 meters on a high plateau in Bolivia

Fumarole - the release of volcanic gases to the surface of the earth

The Bolivian Altiplano is so cold that the water freezes a short distance from the geothermal spring.

Mud flows descend from the slopes of active volcanoes and contain large amounts of loose rock fragments covering these slopes. Most volcanic mud flows are cold, but some are hot.

A mud flow occurs when a large mass of water somehow falls on the slope of a volcano covered with a layer of debris. This may be the result of a geyser eruption or for some other reason, such as a sudden release of water from a crater lake. The largest of these lakes is located in Oregon -. Its volume is about 17.5 cubic kilometers, and in depth it is the first in the United States - 594 meters. If an explosion occurs under such a lake and some of the water splashes onto the slope through a crack in the crater, or rising above the upper edge of the volcanic funnel, this will cause a strong mud flow.

Facts about mud flows

In a study in Washington State, USA, it was discovered that the sediments around it were left by prehistoric mud flows formed as a result of lava splashing due to the rapid increase in the volume of meltwater from the slopes of the volcanic crater, when lava flows began to move along the slope and came into contact with glacier. The mud flows formed as a result of the eruption of Mount Rainier are among the largest ever explored in the whole world and their volume reaches 2 billion cubic meters!
Some of the mud flows are formed as a result of avalanches or ash flows mixing with mountain rivers. As a result of steam explosion, the surface layer is destroyed and a mud flow is formed.
Mud can also form when ash is released into the atmosphere and comes into contact with rain clouds. As a result, precipitation covers the vegetation in such a thick layer that tree branches break, and weakly strengthened soil is subject to movement.
The debris deposited by volcanic mud flows hardens like concrete when it cools and dries.
Most volcanic mud flows contain a significant proportion of small particles, but they also contain large blocks larger than 35 centimeters in size, sometimes reaching several meters.

Geothermal springs

Under the ground, deep and not very deep, underground waters lie. The supply is so large that it makes no sense to talk about their volume. Being part of the upper layer of the earth's crust, groundwater in solid, liquid and gaseous states performs various important functions and forms soil water, aquifers and interstratal horizons. Heated in the earth's crust by modern volcanic activity, crustal movement, or contact with a magmatic layer, groundwater sometimes comes to the surface. The phenomenon of water rising from the depths of the earth to the surface with a temperature above 20 degrees is called a “geothermal source.” In this case, the water temperature must exceed the average annual temperature characteristic of a given area in order for the water to heat up not in the atmosphere, but underground.

Geothermal waters

In addition to geothermal springs, which consist of water heated in the earth's crust as a result of volcanic activity, geothermal waters are separately distinguished. Let's figure out what it is.

There is a classification of groundwater, according to which water whose temperature exceeds 35 degrees is called geothermal. These waters are found in different places on our planet, which are united by signs of modern volcanism, recent mountain building, or in large faults in the earth’s crust. The following are divided types of geothermal waters:

Low thermal(temperature from 35 to 40 °C);
Thermal(temperature from 40 to 60 °C);
High thermal(temperature from 60 to 100 °C);
Steam thermal or overheated (temperature above 100 °C).

High thermal waters in the north of Thailand in the city of Pai. The water temperature here is about 80 degrees

By use on the farm geothermal waters are divided on the:

Low potential(from 35 to 70 °C) - for resort water supply, fishing and use in swimming pools;
Average(from 70 to 100 °C) - for heating road surfaces, airfields and use for heating buildings and structures;
High potential(from 100 to 300 °C) - for use in a geothermal station to generate electricity.

Terme - hot springs

Thermal baths, or hot springs, have been used since ancient times to treat various diseases, improve the health of the body and prevent various diseases. It is very pleasant to lie in a warm or moderately hot mineral bath, but the sulfurous smell spoils the experience a little. But what can you endure to improve your health?

By the way, the branch of medicine that studies the influence of geothermal waters on the human body is called balneology.

Coming to the surface water from thermal mineral springs in balneology they are divided into:

Warm(from 20 to 37 °C) - heated water, in which a person begins to freeze if left for a long time;
Thermal(from 37 to 42 °C) - the most suitable temperature for the human body;
Hyperthermal(above 42 °C) - the human body is not able to withstand this temperature for a long time.

Thermal baths in the town of Pai in northern Thailand. The temperature here is from 36 to 40 degrees

Tourists bask in thermal waters on the Altiplano plateau in Bolivia. It's very cold outside! And it’s warm in the water!

Geysers

Name " geyser" comes from the Icelandic word "geysa", which literally means "to gush". A geyser is a column of hot water that shoots from the ground into the atmosphere to a height of tens of centimeters to hundreds of meters under the pressure of steam formed during magmatic overheating of groundwater. Geysers exist in areas with volcanic activity. Valleys of Geysers formed near volcanoes or in areas of volcanic activity where hot magma comes close to the Earth's surface. Groundwater near volcanoes contains impurities of many minerals. As a result of steam formation, part of the water evaporates, and impurities settle, forming a solid bottom of the pool around the geyser.

Types of geysers:

Little ones(they throw out fountains of water every few minutes, since it doesn’t take very much time to heat up and create enough steam for a geyser to erupt);
Large(they erupt a column of water much less frequently; the repetition time depends on the depth of the contact spot between magma and water).

For example, the Giant Geyser from the Valley of Geysers on the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia throws out a fountain of water with superheated steam every 40 minutes, and its height reaches several tens of meters. A (Old Faithful) in the state of Wyoming, USA, erupts once every 65 or 90 minutes (this depends on previous eruptions) to a height of 30 to 50 meters, throwing into the atmosphere from 14 to 32 tons of hot water!

The most famous geyser in the world is Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park in the USA.

Geyser Facts

The largest known geyser in the world, Waimangu was in New Zealand in 1899-1904 and erupted to a height of more than 400 meters, throwing out about 800 tons of hot water! But it ceased to exist due to mineral deposits that not only form the bottom of the geyser basin, but also form a tube on the surface, with walls along the erupting column of water with superheated steam. Thus, the depth of the geyser increases, and the pressure of the water column on the bottom becomes so high that the process of boiling and steam formation slows down and, as a result, the force of the superheated steam is no longer enough to erupt.
In Kamchatka in 1941, the Valley of Geysers was discovered (more than 100 in number, of which 20 are large).
Yellowstone National Park in the United States is home to a large collection of geysers of various types, including the tallest modern geyser, called Steamboat. The height of its fountain varies from 90 to 120 meters in height.
Geysers can be regular or irregular. They differ from each other in that the former have a constant cycle of eruptions, while the latter have a variable cycle of eruptions.
The bulk of water emitted by a geyser to the surface is of atmospheric origin, sometimes with an admixture of magmatic water.
Famous large valleys of geysers are located in Kamchatka in Russia (Valley of Geysers), in the USA (Yellowstone National Park), Iceland (Country of Geysers), New Zealand (northern part of the North Island), Chile (High-mountain valley of geysers El Tatio at an altitude of 4200-4300 meters in the Atacama Desert on the border with Bolivia), and there are also single geysers in Canada, China, and Japan.

Zones of volcanic activity on Earth

Ring of Fire	Coasts and island arcs of the Pacific Ocean. Aleutian, Kuril, Japanese, Philippine, Sunda Islands
Mediterranean-Indonesian zone	Coast of Italy, Aegean Sea, Eastern Türkiye, Iran
Atlantic zone	Iceland, Canary Islands. Ridge running through the center of the Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean zone	Comoros
Volcanoes of the central parts of the continents	South America - Andes, Africa - Kenya, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania
Volcanoes on the edges of continents	North America, Central America, the Andes and western South America, Kamchatka, Antarctica

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1. Volcanic activity

2. Types of volcanic structures

3. Classification of volcanoes by shape

4. Volcanic eruption

5. Post-volcanic phenomena

6. Heat sources

7. Areas of volcanic activity

8. Volcanoes on other planets

9. Interesting facts

10. Eruptions

Literature

1. Volcanic activity

Volcanoes-- geological formations on the surface of the Earth's crust or the crust of another planet where magma comes to the surface, forming lava, volcanic gases, rocks (volcanic bombs) and pyroclastic flows.

The word "Vulcan" comes from the name of the ancient Roman god of fire, Vulcan.

The science that studies volcanoes is volcanology and geomorphology.

Volcanoes are classified by shape (shield, stratovolcanoes, cinder cones, domes), activity (active, dormant, extinct), location (terrestrial, underwater, subglacial), etc.

Volcanoes are divided depending on the degree of volcanic activity into active, dormant and extinct. An active volcano is considered to be a volcano that erupted during a historical period of time or in the Holocene. The concept of active is quite inaccurate, since a volcano with active fumaroles is classified by some scientists as active, and by others as extinct. Dormant volcanoes are considered to be inactive volcanoes where eruptions are possible, and extinct volcanoes are considered to be those where they are unlikely.

However, there is no consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano. The period of volcanic activity can last from several months to several million years. Many volcanoes exhibited volcanic activity tens of thousands of years ago, but are not considered active today. Astrophysicists, from a historical perspective, believe that volcanic activity, caused, in turn, by the tidal influence of other celestial bodies, can contribute to the emergence of life. In particular, it was volcanoes that contributed to the formation of the earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere, releasing significant amounts of carbon dioxide and water vapor; scientists also note that too active volcanism, such as on Jupiter’s moon Io, can make the planet’s surface uninhabitable. At the same time, weak tectonic activity leads to the disappearance of carbon dioxide and sterilization of the planet. “These two cases represent potential boundaries for planetary habitability and exist alongside the traditional parameters of habitable zones for systems of low-mass main sequence stars,” the scientists write.

2. Types of volcanic structures

volcano activity shield cinder

In general, volcanoes are divided into linear and central, but this division is arbitrary, since most volcanoes are confined to linear tectonic faults (faults) in the earth’s crust.

Linear volcanoes or fissure-type volcanoes have extensive supply channels associated with a deep split in the crust. As a rule, basaltic liquid magma flows out of such cracks, which, spreading to the sides, forms large lava covers. Along the cracks, gentle spatter shafts, wide flat cones, and lava fields appear. If the magma has a more acidic composition (higher silicon dioxide content in the melt), linear extrusive ridges and massifs are formed. When explosive eruptions occur, explosive ditches can appear tens of kilometers long.

The shapes of central-type volcanoes depend on the composition and viscosity of the magma. Hot and easily mobile basaltic magmas create vast and flat shield volcanoes (Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands). If a volcano periodically erupts either lava or pyroclastic material, a cone-shaped layered structure, a stratovolcano, appears. The slopes of such a volcano are usually covered with deep radial ravines - barrancos. Volcanoes of the central type can be purely lava, or formed only by volcanic products - volcanic scoria, tuffs, etc. formations, or be mixed - stratovolcanoes. There are monogenic and polygenic volcanoes. The former arose as a result of a single eruption, the latter as a result of multiple eruptions. Viscous, acidic in composition, low-temperature magma, squeezed out of the vent, forms extrusive domes (Mont Pele needle, 1902). In addition to calderas, there are also large negative forms of relief associated with subsidence under the influence of the weight of erupted volcanic material and a pressure deficit at depth that arose during the unloading of the magma chamber. Such structures are called volcanotectonic depressions. Volcanotectonic depressions are very widespread and often accompany the formation of thick strata of ignimbrites - volcanic rocks of acidic composition, having different genesis. They are lava or formed by sintered or welded tuffs. They are characterized by lens-shaped segregations of volcanic glass, pumice, lava, called fiamme, and a tuff or tofo-like structure of the main mass. As a rule, large volumes of ignimbrites are associated with shallow magma chambers formed due to the melting and replacement of host rocks. Negative forms of relief associated with volcanoes of the central type are represented by calderas - large rounded failures, several kilometers in diameter.

3. Classification of volcanoes by shape

Shield volcanoes are formed as a result of repeated emissions of liquid lava (1). This shape is characteristic of volcanoes that erupt low-viscosity basaltic lava: it flows from both the central crater and the slopes of the volcano (2). Lava spreads evenly over many kilometers. Like, for example, on the Mauna Loa volcano in the Hawaiian Islands where it flows directly into the ocean.

Slag cones eject from their vent only such loose substances as stones and ash: the largest fragments accumulate in layers around the crater. Because of this, the volcano becomes higher with each eruption (1). Light particles fly away over a longer distance, which makes the slopes gentle (2).

Stratovolcanoes, or "layered volcanoes", periodically erupt lava and pyroclastic matter - a mixture of hot gas, ash and hot rocks. Therefore, deposits on their cone alternate (1). On the slopes of stratovolcanoes, ribbed corridors of solidified lava (2) are formed, which serve as support for the volcano.

Dome volcanoes are formed when granitic, viscous magma rises above the rim of a volcano's crater and only a small amount leaks out, flowing down the slopes (1). Magma clogs the volcano's crater, like a plug (2), which the gases accumulated under the dome literally knock out of the crater.

4. Eruption

Volcanic eruptions are geological emergencies that can lead to natural disasters. The eruption process can last from several hours to many years. Among the various classifications, general types stand out:

Hawaiian type- ejections of liquid basaltic lava, often forming lava lakes. should resemble scorching clouds or red-hot avalanches.

Hydroexplosive type-- eruptions that occur in shallow conditions of oceans and seas are characterized by the formation of a large amount of steam that occurs when hot magma and sea water come into contact.

5. Post-volcanic phenomena

After eruptions, when the activity of the volcano either stops forever, or it “dorms” for thousands of years, processes associated with the cooling of the magma chamber and called post-volcanic processes persist on the volcano itself and its surroundings. These include fumaroles, thermal baths, and geysers.

During eruptions, a volcanic structure sometimes collapses with the formation of a caldera - a large depression with a diameter of up to 16 km and a depth of up to 1000 m. As the magma rises, the external pressure weakens, associated gases and liquid products escape to the surface and a volcanic eruption occurs. If ancient rocks, and not magma, are brought to the surface, and the gases are dominated by water vapor formed when groundwater is heated, then such an eruption is called phreatic.

Lava that rises to the earth's surface does not always reach this surface. It only raises layers of sedimentary rocks and hardens in the form of a compact body (laccolith), forming a unique system of low mountains. In Germany, such systems include the Rhön and Eifel regions. In the latter, another post-volcanic phenomenon is observed in the form of lakes filling the craters of former volcanoes that failed to form a characteristic volcanic cone (the so-called maars).

6. Heat sources

One of the unresolved problems of volcanic activity is determining the heat source necessary for local melting of the basalt layer or mantle. Such melting must be highly localized, since the passage of seismic waves shows that the crust and upper mantle are usually in a solid state. Moreover, the thermal energy must be sufficient to melt huge volumes of solid material. For example, in the USA in the Columbia River basin (Washington and Oregon states) the volume of basalts is more than 820 thousand km?; the same large strata of basalts are found in Argentina (Patagonia), India (Deccan Plateau) and South Africa (Great Karoo Rise). Currently there are three hypotheses. Some geologists believe that the melting is caused by local high concentrations of radioactive elements, but such concentrations in nature seem unlikely; others suggest that tectonic disturbances in the form of shifts and faults are accompanied by the release of thermal energy. There is another point of view, according to which the upper mantle under conditions of high pressure is in a solid state, and when, due to fracturing, the pressure drops, it melts and liquid lava flows through the cracks.

7. Areas of volcanic activity

The main areas of volcanic activity are South America, Central America, Java, Melanesia, the Japanese Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula, the northwestern part of the USA, Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, the Aleutian Islands, Iceland, and the Atlantic Ocean.

8. Volcanoes on other planets

Volcanoes are found not only on Earth, but also on other planets and their satellites. The highest mountain in the Solar System is the Martian volcano Olympus, whose height is estimated at several tens of kilometers. In the Solar System, Jupiter's satellite Io has the greatest volcanic activity. The length of the plume of erupted material reaches 300 km. On some planetary satellites, at low temperatures, it is not magma that erupts, but water and light substances. This type of eruption cannot be classified as ordinary volcanism, which is why this phenomenon is called cryovolcanism.

9. Interesting Facts

In 1963, the island of Surtsey emerged as a result of the eruption of an underwater volcano off the south of Iceland.

The eruption of Mount Krakatoa in Indonesia in 1883 produced the loudest roar ever heard in history. The sound was heard at a distance of more than 4,800 km from the volcano. Atmospheric shock waves circled the Earth seven times and were still visible for 5 days. The volcano killed more than 36,000 people, razed 165 villages and damaged another 132, mostly in the form of tsunamis that followed the eruption. Volcanic eruptions after 1927 created a new volcanic island called Anak Krakatoa ("Child of Krakatoa").

Kilauea Volcano, located in the Hawaiian archipelago, is the most active volcano at present. The volcano rises only 1.2 km above sea level, but its last prolonged eruption began in 1983 and is still ongoing. Lava flows extend 11-12 km into the ocean.

An active volcano has been discovered in Taipei, Taiwan. It was previously thought that the last volcanic activity in this area was more than 200,000 years ago, but it turned out that the last activity was only 5,000 years ago.

In 2010, the eruption of the Eyjafjallajokull volcano caused the cancellation of more than 60 thousand flights across Europe.

In 1908, in Antarctica, on Penguin Island, the village of Volcano Penguin top was founded on the top of an active volcano.

10. Eruptions

10.1. XXI Century

10.2. XX century

Literature

1. M. Yampolsky. Volcano in European culture of the 18th-19th centuries. // Yampolsky M. Observer. M., 2000, p. 95-110

2. Fundamentals of Geology, N.V. Koronovsky, A.F. Yakusheva. - M.: Higher School, 1991. - P. 225-232.

3. Obruchev V.A. Fundamentals of Geology. State publishing house of geological literature. M.-L. 1947

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