Pope Gregory xiii. Pope Gregory XIII: Militant Pope

Born into a wealthy merchant family, he studied at the University of Bologna, where in 1530 he received a doctorate in canon and civil law (in utroque jure).

In 1531-1539. taught at the university. In 1538, Pope Paul III recruited Ugo Boncompagni as a lawyer to work in the Roman Curia. In 1546, as abbreviator Boncompagni, he participated in the work of the Council of Trent (also in 1561-1563). Under Pope Paul IV in Jan. 1556 became a member of the papal commission working on preparing reforms in the Catholic Church. Churches. In the position of papal datarius he was assistant to the card. Carlo Caraffa, nephew of Paul IV, accompanied the cardinal to France, where he was sent as papal legate, and to the Spanish court. cor. Philip II in Brussels. In 1558, Boncompagni was ordained a presbyter, and on July 20 of the same year he was named bishop of Vieste. Pope Pius IV appointed Boncompagni prefect of the supreme papal tribunal Signatura apostolica, and on March 12, 1565 he elevated him to cardinal presbyter of Rome. c. Sixta (received May 15, 1565). In the fall of 1565 he was sent as legate to Spain to investigate the case of the archbishop. Toledo Bartolome Carranza. After the death of Pius IV, Boncompagni, who was not present at the conclave, was considered as one of the possible contenders for the Papal throne, but in January. 1566 Bishop was elected pope. Nepi Antonio (Michele) Ghislieri, under whom Boncompagni became a member of the commission of Roman correctors (Correctores Romani) created by the new pope to streamline the codes of canon law and prepare the official publication “Corpus juris canonici”.

After the death of Pius V card. Hugo Boncompagni, with the support of Cardinal Antoine Granvela, at that time the Viceroy of Naples and close associate of the Spanish King Philip II, was elected pope and ascended to the Roman throne. A supporter and conductor of the Counter-Reformation, Pope Gregory XIII prepared a series of reforms in the spirit of the Council of Trent. In contrast to the strict asceticism of Pope Pius V, the reign of Pope Gregory XIII, probably due to his legal education, was, according to contemporaries, characterized as more secular.

Declaring himself as an opponent of nepotism, Pope Gregory XIII nevertheless appointed his nephews as cardinals - Philip Boncompagni (from June 2, 1572) and Philip Vastallano (from July 5, 1574), the 3rd nephew was denied the rank. Brother Pope Gregory XIII, who asked the pope for financial assistance, was denied access to Rome. Pope Gregory XIII was the last pope of whom it is known for sure that he had illegitimate children - his son Giacomo. before Ugo Boncompagni was ordained as a priest. Pope Gregory XIII arranged the marriage of his son with the Countess of Sforza and elevated him to the position of governor of the castle of St. Angel and gonfaloniere of the Roman Church (commander-in-chief of the troops of the Papal States).

Pope Gregory XIII, already on the day of his election, informed the ambassadors of Spain and Portugal that he intended to continue the fight against the Turks, begun by his predecessors, and to provide assistance to the Holy Antitour. league, organized by Pope Pius V. However, the conflict between the league members, primarily Spain and Venice, which concluded separate peace treaties with the Ottoman Empire (Venice in 1573, Spain in 1581), prevented any success from being achieved in the fight against the Ottoman threat. The main direction of the policy of Pope Gregory XIII was the fight against the spread of Protestantism.

Papal legates acted in the courts of France, Spain, Portugal, the German principalities, Sweden and Poland, trying to contain the Reformation at any cost. It is traditionally believed that the pope reacted positively to the news of St. Bartholomew's Night (Aug. 24, 1572), which he called “a very joyful event for the entire Christian world” ( Romier L. La S. -Barthélemy // Revue du XVIe siècle. 1913. P. 530), the victory of the Church over heretics. However, modern studies clarify that the pope not only did not take any part in preparing the massacre, but, moreover, as a lawyer, he regretted that the French king Charles IX failed to resort to more legal methods of punishing heretics. Later, in order to support the fight against the Huguenots in France, Pope Gregory XIII blessed the Catholics who fought against the “new heresy” (February 15, 1585). Secret treaties were concluded with the Spanish Inquisition. With the bull Antiqua Judeorum (1581), Pope Gregory XIII extended the powers of the Inquisition to cases involving Jews and Muslims. According to the bull “Consueverunt Romani pontifices” (1583), the categories of excommunicates were expanded - they included not only heretics, but also pirates, bandits demanding ransom, counterfeiters and other disturbers of public peace.

The pope placed great hopes on an alliance with the Spanish king against the English Queen Elizabeth I.

In the Netherlands, he also supported the fight against Prince William of Orange and the Gueuze, hoping to use these lands as a springboard for the fight against Protestant England.

In Sweden, where the Jesuit Antonio Possevino was sent as ambassador extraordinary in 1577, King John III Vasa, under the influence of his Catholic wife Catherine Jagiellonka, sister of the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus, agreed to preserve the Catholic faith in his state, provided that they were allowed celebration of mass in the national language, communion with bread and wine, marriage of clergy, refusal to venerate saints, and also that former church property, which passed to secular owners during the years of the Reformation, will be retained by them. After Pope Gregory XIII refused to recognize such a “reconciliation of religions” as possible, after the death of Catherine the Jagiellonian (1583) and a new marriage with a Lutheran, the Swedish king finally fell away from Catholicism, converting to the Lutheran faith. In Poland, the pope approved the election of Stephen Batory as king (1576), who subsequently supported the Catholic clergy and Jesuits in the fight against the reform movement.

In an effort to implement the decisions of the Council of Trent, the pope first of all took measures to ensure that the documents of the Council were made public everywhere. Following the conciliar decisions, he made mandatory visits of church provinces to the North from 1573. and Center. Italy. In other regions (for example, in the Catholic cantons of Switzerland, in N. Austria and Tyrol), papal nuncios became the conductors of papal policy. In St. The Roman Empire, in the conditions of the active spread of Protestantism, which threatened the Church of the Cologne Archdiocese to fall away from Catholicism (in 1582, Archbishop of Cologne Gebhard II von Waldburg declared himself a Calvinist, his joining the Protestant Electors gave them an advantage in the board that elected the emperor), the pope had to agree to the election in 1583 of the Catholic Ernst of Bavaria, brother of Hertz, to the archbishop's see. Bavarian Wilhelm V, despite the fact that the future Archbishop of Cologne by that time was simultaneously the Bishop of Münster, Liege, Freisingen and Hildesheim.

To strengthen church discipline (this demand was also put forward at the Council of Trent), Pope Gregory XIII carried out a number of transformations of the Roman Curia. In an effort to control the process of appointing bishops, the pope demanded the compilation of a list of those priests who in the near future, if there were vacancies, could receive the episcopal rank, so that the most complete information about the candidates would be collected and only worthy ones would be appointed to vacant positions. The Congregation for Bishops was organized (in 1601, together with the Congregation for Religious Affairs, it became part of the Congregation for Bishops and Religious Affairs) and the Congregation for Ceremonial Affairs (1572). The financial structure of the Catholic Church was changed. Churches, control over income was transferred to the Apostolic Chamber (Camera apostolica). Pope Gregory XIII laid the foundation for the future. Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (Propaganda fidei) - a committee of 3 cardinals was entrusted with the leadership of the Catholic Church. missions in the East to support Eastern Catholics. ritual in canonical communication with the Roman throne and the spread of Catholicism. faith among the Orthodox population. For the same purpose, Pope Gregory XIII promoted the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church in Eastern languages. The missionary activities of Catholic monastic orders in non-European territories received support from Pope Gregory XIII. The Jesuits began active missionary work in China and Japan, having received papal privilege and being the only order that could conduct preaching activities in these lands, as well as in Peru, Mexico, and the East. Africa and the Middle East. The Pope provided significant financial assistance to the Jesuit college in Japan. The missions of the Augustinians and Franciscans worked in the Philippine Islands, and in 1579 the Bishop of Manila was founded there.

In con. 1577 - beginning In 1578, the Jacobite Antiochian Patriarch Ignatius Namatalla was in Rome, with whom negotiations began on concluding a church union of the Roman Catholic Church and the ancient Eastern Churches (Syrian (Jacobite), Coptic and Ethiopian). The unions were concluded after the death of Pope Gregory XIII.

In 1581 Russian. Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible turned to Pope Gregory XIII with a request for mediation in concluding peace between the Russian state and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Possevino was sent to Moscow, also authorized to negotiate a union. After the signing of the Peace of Yam-Zapolsky, Possevino arrived in Moscow, where, with the permission of Ivan the Terrible, he held (February 21, 23 and March 4) public debates about faith, after one of which, in a fit of rage, the tsar almost killed the papal legate. Possevino's mission was completed without bringing any results in the union negotiations.

Following the Council's program for the revival of Catholic spirituality, the pope supported the activities of the Jesuits, Capuchins and other orders. In 1575, with the bull “Copiosus”, Pope Gregory XIII approved the Oratorian Order, and in 1579 he reorganized the Western Order. branches of the Basilian Order (bull “Benedictus Dominus”). In 1580, the pope approved the reform of the Carmelite order carried out by Teresa of Avila, as a result of which the branch of Discalced Carmelites and Carmelites was separated.

Pope Gregory XIII commissioned C. Baronius to edit and prepare for publication the Roman Martyrology. In 1582 the official was published. a collection of laws of the Catholic Church “Corpus juris canonici” approved by G. (by the bull “Cum pro munere pastorali”), valid until 1917. In the process of preparing the 4-volume edition, ancient manuscripts of Gratian’s Decree and codes of decretal law were searched for and compared in order to eliminate errors and discrepancies.

In 1582, the pope carried out a calendar reform. Its necessity was already announced at the Council of Trent: due to the error of the Julian calendar, the date of March 21, traditionally considered the early boundary of the Paschal full moon, gradually retreated from the astronomical spring equinox and by 1545, when the Council opened, was 10 days behind it. A special commission was organized to prepare the reform; the final draft (compiled by astronomer L. Lilio) received the approval of many. European universities. It was proposed to remove the 10 days accumulated by following the Julian calendar since the Council of Nicea (325), and to avoid their accumulation in the future, skip 3 leap periods every 400 years; for this purpose, years divisible by 100, but not divisible by 400, were taken as ordinary years instead of leap years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 and 2200 are ordinary years; 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years). Thus, the border of the Easter year, March 21, again, as in the 4th century, returned to the point of the vernal equinox. At the same time, the method for determining full moons was also subject to correction. The new calendar, which received the name “Gregorian” after Pope Gregory XIII, was put into effect by a bull of February 24. 1582 "Inter gravissimas". After 4 Oct. that year, all Christians were ordered to count October 15 at once. In 1583, the pope sent an embassy to Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople with gifts and an offer to switch to a new calendar. At the end of 1583, at the Council in Constantinople, this proposal was rejected as not complying with the canonical rules for celebrating Easter.

Pope Gregory XIII, more than any of his predecessors, tried to turn Rome into the center of Catholic church education - under the Roman College the German College (bul "Postquam Deo placuit", 1574), the Greek College of St. Athanasius (bull “In apostolicae Sedis”, 1577), College of the Angles of St. Thomas (bull “Quoniam divinae”, 1579) and the Maronite College (bull “Humana sic ferunt”, 1584), the purpose of which was to train priests of the East. rite. The Roman College received a new building and an annual cash grant. In 1575, the anniversary year (“annus sanctus”) was widely celebrated in Rome; approx. 400 thousand pilgrims. For this event in Rome, work was carried out to reconstruct roads, fountains were broken, including 2 on the square. Navona, construction of the Quirinale Palace began.

Pope Gregory XIII died in Rome and was buried in the Basilica of St. Petra.

The Roman calendar and its Julian reform

Ancient Roman calendar. History has not preserved for us exact information about the time of the birth of the Roman calendar. However, it is known that during the time of Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome and the first Roman king, i.e. around the middle of the 8th century. BC e., the Romans used a calendar in which the year, according to Censorinus, consisted of only 10 months and contained 304 days. Initially, the months did not have names and were designated by serial numbers. The year began on the first day of the month in which the beginning of spring occurred.

Around the end of the 8th century. BC e. some months got their own names. Thus, the first month of the year was named Martius in honor of the god of war, Mars. The second month of the year was named Aprilis. This word comes from the Latin "aperire", which means "to open", as this is the month when the buds on the trees open. The third month was dedicated to the goddess Maya - the mother of the god Hermes (Mercury) - and was called Majus, and the fourth in honor of the goddess Juno (Fig. 8), wife Jupiter was named Junius. This is how the names of the months of March, April, May and June appeared. Subsequent months continued to retain their numerical designations:

Quintilis - “fifth”
Sextilis - “sixth”
September (September) - “seventh”
Oktober - “eighth”
November (November) - “ninth”
December - “tenth”

Martius, Maius, Quintilis and October each had 31 days, and the remaining months consisted of 30 days. Therefore, the most ancient Roman calendar can be presented in the form of a table. 1, and one of its samples is shown in Fig. 9.

Table 1 Roman calendar (8th century BC)
Name of the month	Number of days	Name of the month	Number of days
March	31	Sextilis	30
April	30	September	30
May	31	October	31
June	30	November	30
Quintilis	31	December	30

Create a 12 month calendar. In the 7th century BC e., that is, during the time of the second legendary ancient Roman king - Numa Pompilius, a reform of the Roman calendar was carried out and two more months were added to the calendar year: the eleventh and twelfth. The first of them was named January (Januarius) - in honor of the two-faced god Janus (Fig. 10), whose one face was turned forward and the other backward: he could simultaneously contemplate the past and foresee the future. The name of the second new month, February, comes from the Latin word "februarius", which means "purification" and is associated with the purification ritual celebrated annually on February 15th. This month was dedicated to the god of the underworld Februus.

The history of the distribution of days according to months. Initially, the year of the Roman calendar, as already mentioned, consisted of 304 days. To make it equal to the Greek calendar year, one would have to add 50 days to it, and then there would be 354 days in a year. But the superstitious Romans believed that odd numbers happier than even ones, and therefore added 51 days. However, from such a number of days it was impossible to make 2 full months. Therefore, from six months, which previously consisted of 30 days, i.e., from April, June, Sextilis, September, November and December, one day was taken away. Then the number of days from which new months were formed increased to 57. From this number of days, the months January, which contained 29 days, and February, which received 28 days, were formed.

Thus, a year containing 355 days was divided into 12 months with the number of days indicated in the table. 2.

Here, February only had 28 days. This month was doubly “unlucky”: it was shorter than others and contained an even number of days. This is what the Roman calendar looked like several centuries BC. e. The established length of the year of 355 days almost coincided with the duration of the lunar year, which consisted of 12 lunar months but 29.53 days, since 29.53 × 12 == 354.4 days.

This coincidence is not accidental. It is explained by the fact that the Romans used a lunar calendar and the beginning of each month was determined by the first appearance of the crescent moon after the new moon. The priests ordered the heralds to publicly “cry out” for everyone to know the beginning of each new month, as well as the beginning of the year.

The chaos of the Roman calendar. The Roman calendar year is shorter than the tropical year by more than 10 days. Because of this, calendar numbers corresponded less and less to natural phenomena every year. To eliminate this irregularity, every two years between February 23 and 24, an additional month was inserted, the so-called Mercedonium, which alternately contained 22 and 23 days. Therefore, the years alternated in length as follows:

table 2
Roman calendar (7th century BC)
Name	Number	Name	Number
meoscha	days	months	days
March	31	September	29
April	29	October	31
May	31	November	29
June	29	December	29
Kshshtplis	31	Yapnar	29
Sextnlis	29	February	28

355 days

377 (355+22) days

355 days

378 (355+23) days.

Thus, each four-year period consisted of two simple years and two extended ones. The average length of the year in such a four-year period was 366.25 days, that is, it was a whole day longer than in reality. In order to eliminate the discrepancy between calendar numbers and natural phenomena, it was necessary from time to time to resort to increasing or decreasing the duration of additional months.

The right to change the length of additional months belonged to the priests (pontiffs), headed by the high priest (Pontifex Maximus). They often abused their power by arbitrarily lengthening or shortening the year. According to Cicero, the priests, using the power granted to them, extended the terms of public positions for their friends or for persons who bribed them, and shortened the terms for their enemies. The time for paying various taxes and fulfilling other obligations also depended on the arbitrariness of the priest. In addition to all this, confusion began in the celebrations. So, The harvest festival sometimes had to be celebrated not in summer, but in winter.

We find a very apt description of the state of the Roman calendar of that time from the outstanding French writer and educator of the 18th century. Voltaire, who wrote: “Roman generals always won, but they never knew on what day it happened.”

Julius Caesar and the calendar reform. The chaotic nature of the Roman calendar created such great inconvenience that its urgent reform turned into an acute social problem. Such a reform was carried out over two thousand years ago, in 46 BC. e. It was initiated by the Roman statesman and commander Julius Caesar. By this time, he had visited Egypt, the center of ancient science and culture, and became acquainted with the peculiarities of the Egyptian calendar. It was this calendar, with the amendment of the Canopic Decree, that Julius Caesar decided to introduce in Rome. He entrusted the creation of a new calendar to a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sosigenes.

Julian calendar of Sosigenes. The essence of the reform was that the calendar was based on the annual movement of the Sun between the stars. The average length of the year was set at 365.25 days, which exactly corresponded to the length of the tropical year known at that time. But so that the beginning of the calendar year always falls on the same date, as well as at the same time of day, they decided to count up to 365 days in each year for three years, and 366 in the fourth. This lastthe year was called a leap year. True, Sosigenes must have known that the Greek astronomer Hipparchus, approximately 75 years before the reform planned by Julius Caesar, established that the length of the tropical year was not 365.25 days, but somewhat less, but he probably considered this difference insignificant and therefore neglected them.

Sosigenes divided the year into 12 months, for which he retained their ancient names: January, February, March, April, May, June, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November and December. The month of Mercedonia was excluded from the calendar. January was accepted as the first month of the year, since already from 153 BC. e. the newly elected Roman consuls took office on January 1. The number of days in months was also ordered (Table 3).

Table 3
Julian calendar of Sosigenes (46 years BC)
Name	Number	Name	Number
months	days	months	days
January	31	Quintilis	31
February	29 (30)	Sextilis	30
March	31	September	31
April	30	October	30
Small	31	November	31
June	30	December	30

Consequently, all odd-numbered months (January, March, May, Quintilis, September and November) had 31 days, and even-numbered months (February, April, June, Sextilis, October and December) had 30 days. Only February of a simple year contained 29 days.

Before implementing the reform, trying to ensure that all holidays coincide with their corresponding seasons, the Romans added to the calendar year, in addition to Mercedonia, which consisted of 23 days, two more intercalary months - one of 33 days, and the other of 34. Both of these months were placed between November and December. Thus a year of 445 days was formed, known in history as the disorderly or “year of confusion.” This was the year 46 BC. e.

In gratitude to Julius Caesar for streamlining the calendar and his military services, the Senate, at the suggestion of the Roman politician Mark Antony, in 44 BC. e. renamed the month Quintilis (fifth), in which Caesar was born, to July (Julius)

Roman Emperor Augustus (63 BC-14 AD)

Counting according to the new calendar, called the Julian calendar, began on January 1, 45 BC. e. Just on this day there was the first new moon after the winter solstice. This is the only moment in the Julian calendar that has a connection with the lunar phases.

Augustan calendar reform. The members of the highest priestly college in Rome - the pontiffs - were instructed to monitor the correctness of time calculation, however, not understanding the essence of Sosigenes' reform, for some reason they inserted leap days not after three years on the fourth, but after two years on the third. Due to this error, the calendar account was again confused.

The error was discovered only in 8 BC. e. during the time of Caesar's successor, Emperor Augustus, who made a new reform and eliminated the accumulated error. By his order, starting from 8 BC. e. and ending with 8 AD. e., skipped inserting extra days in leap years.

At the same time, the Senate decided to rename the month Sextilis (sixth) in August - in honor of Emperor Augustus, in gratitude for the correction of the Julian calendar and the great military victories he won in this month. But there were only 30 days in sextilis. The Senate considered it inconvenient to leave fewer days in the month dedicated to Augustus than in the month dedicated to Julius Caesar, especially since the number 30, being even, was considered unlucky. Then another day was taken away from February and added to sextilis - August. So February was left with 28 or 29 days. But now it turns out that three months in a row (July, August and September) have 31 days each. This again did not suit the superstitious Romans. Then they decided to move one day of September to October. At the same time, one day in November was moved to December. These innovations completely destroyed the regular alternation of long and short months created by Sosigenes.

This is how the Julian calendar gradually improved (Table 4), which remained the only one and unchanged in almost all of Europe until the end of the 16th century, and in some countries even until the beginning of the 20th century.

Table 4
Julian calendar (early AD)
Name	Number	Name	Number
months	days	months	days
January	31	July	31
February	28 (29)	August	31
March April May June	31 30 31 30	September October November December	30 31 30 31

Historians indicate that the emperors Tiberius, Nero and Commodus tried three subsequent months to call by their proper names, but their attempts failed.

Counting days in months. The Roman calendar did not know the ordinal counting of days in a month. The counting was carried out by the number of days up to three specific moments within each month: Kalends, Nons and Ides, as shown in the table. 5.

Only the first days of the month were called kalends and fell at a time close to the new moon.

The nones were the 5th of the month (in January, February, April, June, August, September, November and December) or the 7th of the month (in March, May, July and October). They coincided with the beginning of the first quarter of the Moon.

Finally, the ids were the 13th of the month (in those months in which nones fell on the 5th) or the 15th (in those months in which the nones fell on the 7th).

Unlike the usual forward counting, the Romans counted days from Kalends, Nons and Ides in the opposite direction. So, if it was necessary to say “January 1,” then they said “on the calendars of January”; May 9 was called “the 7th day from the Ides of May,” December 5 was called “on the December Nones,” and instead of “June 15,” they said “on the 17th day from the Kalends of July,” etc. It must be remembered, however, that the original date itself was always included in the count of days.

The examples considered show that when dating, the Romans never used the word “after,” but only “from.”

In each month of the Roman calendar there were three more days that had special names. These are the eves, that is, the days preceding the nones, ids, and also the calendars of the next month. Therefore, speaking about these days, they said: “on the eve of the Ides of January” (i.e., January 12), “on the eve of the Kalends of March” (i.e., February 28), etc.

Leap years and the origin of the word “leap year”. During the calendar reform of Augustus, errors made during the incorrect use of the Julian calendar were eliminated, and the basic rule of the leap year was legalized: every fourth year is a leap year. Therefore, leap years are those whose numbers are divisible by 4 without a remainder. Considering that thousands and hundreds are always divisible by 4, it is enough to establish whether the last two digits of the year are divisible by 4: for example, 1968 is a leap year, since 68 is divisible by 4 without remainder, and 1970 is simple, since 70 is not divisible by 4.

The expression “leap year” is associated with the origin of the Julian calendar and the peculiar counting of days used by the ancient Romans. When reforming the calendar, Julius Caesar did not dare to place an additional day in a leap year after February 28, but hid it where the mercedonium had previously been located, that is, between February 23 and 24. Therefore, February 24 was repeated twice.

But instead of “February 24,” the Romans said “the sixth day before the Kalends of March.” In Latin, the sixth number is called “sextus”, and “sixth again” is called “bissextus”. Therefore, a year containing an extra day in February was called “bisextilis.” The Russians, having heard this word from the Byzantine Greeks, who pronounced “b” as “v”, turned it into “visokos”. Therefore, it is impossible to write “vysokosny”, as is sometimes done, since the word “vysokos” is not Russian and has nothing to do with the word “high”.

Accuracy of the Julian calendar. The length of the Julian year was set at 365 days and 6 hours. But this value is 11 minutes longer than the tropical year. 14 sec. Therefore, for every 128 years, a whole day was accumulated. Consequently, the Julian calendar was not very accurate. Another important advantage was its significant simplicity.

Chronology. In the first centuries of its existence, dating of events in Rome was carried out by the names of the consuls. In the 1st century n. e. The era “from the creation of the city” began to spread, which was important in the chronology of Roman history.

According to the Roman writer and scientist Marcus Terence Varro (116-27 BC), the estimated date of the founding of Rome corresponds to the third year of the 6th Olympiad (Ol. 6.3). Since the founding day of Rome was celebrated annually as a spring holiday, it was possible to establish that the era of the Roman calendar, that is, its starting point, is April 21, 753 BC. e. The era “from the founding of Rome” was used by many Western European historians until the end of the 17th century.

According to the reform of Julius Caesar, three years were supposed to have a duration of 365, and the fourth - 366 days (leap year). Because of this, the calendar had to be very accurate and give an error of no more than one day every 128 years.

However, in the first years of the introduction of the Julian calendar, the pontiffs incorrectly applied this rule. They inserted an additional day not every three years on the fourth, but every third year. This error lasted quite a long time - for 36 years, during which three extra days accumulated. The error had to be corrected, which was done by Emperor Augustus, who decided not to insert additional days in leap years between 9 BC. and 8 AD

Due to such a long-term error, the normal functioning of the Julian calendar began on March 1, 4 AD. The Senate, in gratitude to Emperor Augustus for correcting the calendar, renamed the month Sextilius to Augustus. However, Emperor Augustus also wanted the month of Augustus to have a length of at least the month of Julius Caesar, namely, to be 31 days long. To make his month 31 days long, Emperor Augustus removed one day from February and shifted the lengths of the remaining months so that August has 31 days. These changes, as well as the Roman names of the months, have been preserved to the present day.

The Julian calendar was simple and easy to use, as well as quite accurate, which is why it was used for a very long period, amounting to one and a half millennia. However, as mentioned above, this calendar was also inaccurate - the error of this calendar was one day in 128 years. Thus, it turned out that at the beginning of our era the spring equinox occurred on March 23, and after 400 years - three days earlier.

From the time of Julius Caesar to the Council of Nicaea (325), the discrepancy was already three days; it turned out that the astronomical moment of the vernal equinox moved from March 24 to 21. The Council of Nicaea approved March 21 as the day of the vernal equinox. But since the cause of the discrepancy was not eliminated, the calendar error continued to accumulate, and by the end of the 16th century, the date of the vernal equinox had already shifted by as much as 10 days, from March 21 to March 11. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII reformed the calendar, restoring the date of the vernal equinox to March 21. To do this, extra days were “thrown out” from the calendar, and October 15 was declared the next day after October 4, 1582. The introduced calendar, in honor of Pope Gregory XIII, was called the Gregorian calendar.

A. VENEDIKTOV: 13 hours and 12 minutes in Moscow. You are listening to the radio station “Echo of Moscow”, this is our program “Everything is So”, together with Natalya Ivanovna Basovskaya. Today we will talk about Pope Gregory XIII, the Pope of Rome, not your Pope. Naturally, as always, we are raffling off books. We will have 20 winners today. First I'll state the question. What is the name of the crown of the popes? What is the name of the headdress of the Popes? If you remember this, send us a response by SMS +7-985-970-45-45. This is a Moscow number for SMS messages. Don't forget to subscribe. Of course, the pager and the Internet work. What is the name of the ceremonial headdress of the Pope? What do the winners get? The first 10 winners receive a book from the Young Guard publishing house, “Daily Life” series. The book is called “Daily Life of the Papal Court in the Times of the Borgia and Medici.” A little earlier than our hero, but nonetheless. From 11 to 20, the winner receives the book “History of the Papacy” by Samuil Lozinsky, the “Popular Historical Library” series, the publishing house “Rusich”. [repeat question and telephone number].

Our “Everything is So” program begins. Gregory XIII, the Pope is our hero today. Why is he our hero? Because it's a calendar. Natalya Ivanovna, hello.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Good afternoon. He would have known that he was a hero because of the calendar. His life, about which very little is known, there were a lot of Roman popes and they left different traces in History. His life as a politician, church leader, statesman is little known to us, but many have probably heard about the calendar because it is Gregorian. And because it is a very noticeable phenomenon, to rule over time. He would be surprised that he remained in the memory of posterity as the initiator of changing the calendar. To understand why he might be surprised, let's remember his life. He belongs to the category of the so-called “militant popes”, there is such a term in historiography, the era of the Counter-Reformation. This also includes a few more figures. The people who occupied the papal throne devoted enormous strength and enormous energy to stopping the reform of the church.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Because they thought it was an accident, that it was just a few evil minds.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Luther [ed. (German Martin Luther; November 10, 1483, Aischleben, Saxony - February 18, 1546)], Zwingli [ed. (German Ulrich Zwingli; January 1, 1484, Wilhaus, canton of St. Gallen - October 11, 1531, Kappel am Albis, canton of Zurich)], Calvin [ed. fr. Jean Calvin, also Cauvin; lat. variant of the name Ioannes Calvinus; (July 10, 1509 - May 27, 1564) - French theologian, church reformer, founder of Calvinism.], Hus [ed. (Czech Jan Hus, 1369/1371, born in the village of Husinec in southern Bohemia - July 6, 1415, Konstanz)], once upon a time, several apostates. It was impossible to accept that this was actually an overdue spiritual revolution. And they gave their lives to it. In a sense, the creator of the new calendar, in this political aspect, essentially tried to stop time, to stop the course of History. The calendar is a calendar, but it was impossible to stop the reformation, which was a phenomenon and a sign of the exit from the Middle Ages, one of the signs. But they were not allowed to know this. So, a stormy, violent champion of the revival of the idea of ​​papal theocracy, i.e. the power of the popes, coming directly from God and standing above all other types of power, spiritual and temporal too.

Celebrated St. Bartholomew's Night [ed. massacre of Huguenots in France, carried out by Catholics on the night of August 24, 1572, St. Bartholomew], details later. They celebrate different things. He celebrated her. He revived and advanced far a phenomenon called nepotism, in Russian - nepotism, from the Latin nepotism. The grandson and nephew revived this nepotism, a painful phenomenon in the church. And, finally, the calendar, which for him was also connected with his ministry, with his faith, with the church, and we will also talk about this later. So who is he? Details from the private life of Roman popes are a rare thing to this day. And we know little. But anyway. In the world - Ugo Boncompagni. Hugo is a name that today also belongs to a politician. From a rich, quite noble family. [ed. Gregory XIII (lat. Gregorius PP. XIII; in the world Ugo Boncompagni, Italian. Ugo Boncompagni; January 7, 1501 - April 10, 1585) - Pope from May 13, 1572 to April 10, 1585.]

A. VENEDIKTOV: In the 19th century they became princes.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Very noble people.

A. VENEDIKTOV: By the way, in Rome there is Boncompagni Street. Where their mansion once stood.

N. BASOVSKAYA: At the University of Bologna he turned out to be a very learned man, he was really interested in science, since at the University of Bologna he occupied the chair of canon law. He was a competent, educated lawyer. And to say that his attempt to stop time in the form of the Reformation was a delusion of the unenlightened and dark, no.

A. VENEDIKTOV: He became a doctor of law at the age of 28, which was...

N. BASOVSKAYA: Young and capable.

A. VENEDIKTOV: In an era where it was so difficult to obtain all sorts of gradations, at the age of 28 he headed the department and became a doctor of law, i.e. he is a scientist.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Of course, he is not mediocre, not devoid of intelligence. Received the title of cardinal. But who is the cardinal? In general, today we know that the cardinals are about 70 people.

A. VENEDIKTOV: We know that he is Richelieu. We know this for sure.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Essentially, the position, the status of a cardinal, what is it? From the simplest word “cardo”, which means door hook. In the 5th-11th centuries, these were clergy who gradually strengthened their positions, occupying permanent places in certain parish churches, but not in villages, but in cities. Which were so firmly connected to their places, as they wrote in the sources, like a door is connected to the hook on which it hangs. True, I wouldn’t have guessed to say that the door was hanging on a hook; probably, the device was not the same as today’s iron doors. In 1059, already the beginning of the second half of the 11th century, by the Decree of the Lateran Council, one of the popes, Nicholas II, granted the cardinals the right to elect popes. That is, this practice has been going on only since the middle, beginning of the second half of the 11th century. The conclave of the meeting - approximately 70 cardinals, at first it was much smaller, 7, 11. To this day, it elects the pope from among itself. Conclave literally means “Locked Hall,” because until they decide by secret ballot who among them will become pope, they have no right to leave this room. The servants who serve them also do not have the right to leave the adjacent room. Everything is under lock and key. Hence the conclave.

And this fairly learned, educated person receives a cardinal’s hat, as they say now, because the practice has arisen that cardinals have such a headdress. Not the one you asked our radio listeners about, but also a headdress that is distinctive. In the Catholic Church, as well as in the Orthodox Church too, a headdress marks one’s status in the church hierarchy, so that it can be immediately seen...

A. VENEDIKTOV: Like shoulder straps or aiguillettes.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes, sort of. The same as the color of the robe. Bishops have purple, cardinals have red, popes have white or gold. And all at once, as if it were immediately written who he is. In general, for the era of the formation of the Christian church, in its great status in which it still exists today, the image, picture, visuals, as we will say today, were very important. For it replaced the text for the illiterate flock. And people who could neither read nor write, the majority of absolute believers, formed an idea for themselves from the visual image, no worse than from the text. He was apparently a notable cardinal due to his education, innate intelligence and unprecedented energy. And he proved it, he was on the papal throne for 15 years. But he joined there at 70, i.e. these 15 years were after the person turned 70 years old. And he was incredibly energetic. And Pope Pim IV sent this cardinal to participate in the meetings of the Council of Trent [ed. The Council of Trent is the nineteenth Ecumenical Council (according to the Roman Catholic Church), which opened on December 13, 1545 in Trento (lat. Tridentum) on the initiative of Pope Paul III, mainly in response to the Reformation, and closed there on December 4, 1563, during the pontificate Pius IV, was the most important council in the history of the Catholic Church.], to Germany, the city of Trident, Latin - tridentum. There, intermittently, at first he met only in Trent, then he met in Bologna, since the atmosphere in Trent became tense, and Bologna was then very positive towards the papacy. This Council met for approximately only 6 years, with interruptions, from 1545 to 1563, even more than six years. There he justified the trust of Pope Pius IV who sent him. He consistently, intelligently, reasonedly, with legal arguments defended the principle of the absolute completeness of papal power. And this principle was questioned from all sides. First of all, he was subject to doubts, not formulated at the height of the heretical movements that preceded the Reformation, from the depravity of many figures on the papal throne, such a person cannot have comprehensive power, such a person, such a person cannot...

A. VENEDIKTOV: That is, it was a revolt of the bishops?

N. BASOVSKAYA: In part, both bishops and ordinary people participated. And this was finally formulated by Jan Hus, who said that the true head of the church is only Jesus Christ himself. This is a morally impeccable figure, and no other person, no matter who he is, can be indisputable in the main Christian church. It must be said that for quite a long time - from the 11th to the 15th centuries, inside the church and next to it, surrounded by it, there was a broad movement for church reform, the Cluny movement [ed. The Cluny movement is a movement for the reform of monastic life and the church, the center of which was the Cluny Abbey], we once talked about it. These are people who sincerely wanted to correct morals and carry out reforms other than the Reformation, which meant changing both worship and the relationship between the idea of ​​a person’s relationship with God. No! Cleanse morals, cleanse the church of figures who do not conform. The Council of Trent drew a line under this.

A. VENEDIKTOV: But our hero was orthodox.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Unconditional.

A. VENEDIKTOV: He is 65 years old at this time. The end of life for the 16th century. 65 years old is not even middle age. There, in my opinion, the average age of men is 45-48 years.

N. BASOVSKAYA: This is even a lot. I think that's a lot. Around 40.

A. VENEDIKTOV: He is a very old man according to the concepts of the 16th century.

N. BASOVSKAYA: After 50, an old man was considered completely old. Elder. My chroniclers wrote about the French king Charles VI. And I once, as a very young researcher, completely fell under their influence and wrote in some early article about the 100 Years War that I didn’t consider “decrepit Charles VI”, but now I think I met a wonderful colleague Vladimir Ilyich Raitis, who wrote about Joan of Arc. We met and he said: “For you, of course, I am a decrepit old man, because I, like Charles VI, am 54 years old.” And I understood what it means to follow the lead of the source. Yes, in the 16th century he was not so decrepit, but an old man. But this was not felt in his behavior. So, the fullness of papal power. Papal theocracy is God’s own vicegerent on earth and no more reforms, no purification, because talk about purifying the morals of the clergy inevitably leads to the fact that the pope must be corrected if he is wrong in something. No. Dad is absolutely sinless. And this dogma goes back to very ancient times, to the times of Charlemagne and Pope Leo, who first became blind and then regained his sight. Return it to the beginning of a new time, because the 16th century is not even a threshold, it is a new time that has begun. This is the time of an economically reborn Europe, a spiritually reborn Europe. Bring back this past. In 1572, this emeritus cardinal, this man who...

A. VENEDIKTOV: Fighter!

N. BASOVSKAYA: ... showed that he is a fighter, smart, militant. He becomes a militant pope.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Moreover, he was elected quite quickly. The conclave did not last long, because at that moment there was a war.

N. BASOVSKAYA: But this conclave was prepared by a very significant type - Cardinal Granvela, this is an executioner...

A. VENEDIKTOV: Red dog, as they called him.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. By the color of the red robe. That is, since Cardinal Granvela [ed. (Granvelle, Granvela) Antoine Perrenot de (1517-86), cardinal (from 1561), in 1559-1564], consider that this is Philip II of Spain, because Granvelle is a direct tool of Philip II. So, the Conclave worked under the influence of these most Christian, most Catholic figures in Western Europe at that time.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Let's remember the balance of power in Europe. Great Britain, Elizabeth.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Infected with heresy.

A. VENEDIKTOV: France. Civil War.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Huguenots, Calvinists.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Catholics, etc. Spain. The most Christian king.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Here it is, support!

A. VENEDIKTOV: Holland. Revolt of the Guez. Germany.

N. BASOVSKAYA: We jumped to the republic in Holland.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Germany. Some sovereigns support the reformers.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Augsburg religious world, 1555. This is a world that is fraught with endless war, because it consolidates the division of principalities into Catholic and Protestant. [ed. agreement concluded on September 25, 1555 at the Reichstag in Augsburg between the Lutheran and Catholic subjects of the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman King Ferdinand I, acting on behalf of Emperor Charles V]

A. VENEDIKTOV: And we have Ivan the Terrible.

N. BASOVSKAYA: And we have Ivan the Terrible. And our dad, our character today, had something to do with Ivan the Terrible.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I just wanted to remind you about Europe that this was a seething time, the 70s of the 16th century.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Fault phenomena, reformation. And our character is a passionate advocate of the fact that the reformation should and can be destroyed. He didn't understand this.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I tried to understand why he took the name Grigory. Because he was the ideological heir of Pius V. Why did he take Gregory? I tried to find some connection.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Gregory the Great is one of the early figures of the Christian church, a man who, with his certain reforms and regulations, determined much in dogma, rituals and strict adherence to the fact that the church organization is vertical. There, the vertical of power was clear in the eyes of Catholics. And dad is fully consistent with God's will and is able to carry it out.

NEWS

A. VENEDIKTOV: Before we continue, we asked you what the crown, the headdress of the Popes, is called. And we draw, the first 10 people receive a book by Jacques Hers from the series “Daily Life of the Papal Court in the Times of the Borgia and Medici”, the second, from 11 to 20 - Lozinsky’s book “History of the Papacy”. Our winners who correctly said it was a tiara and said it very quickly. Vera (951), Galina (875), Anita (255), Yuri from Kazan (515), Polina (453), Alexander (513). Nadezhda (518), Igor (104), Dasha (315) and Vladimir (144 ). Lazinsky’s book is received by Galina (663), Dmitry from Perm (268), Tanya, or Tonya (721), Kostya (747), Tamara from Vladikavkaz (483), Vladislav (037), Yana (251). Sergey (828), Rufa (042) and Mikhail from Tomsk (252). These are the ones who receive the book. And further. Before we continue, I want to address our listeners. Natalya Ivanovna and I are forming a list of new heroes for 2008. If you want to hear a program about some historical foreign figure before the twentieth century, send your suggestions right now, within 20 minutes by SMS +985-970-45-45, about whom you would like to hear the program “That’s So.”

Three months before St. Bartholomew's Night, the new Pope. He is chosen.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Let us note right away that our frantic, militant, who completely devoted himself to the idea of ​​papal power, its purity, he did have a natural son, Giacomo.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Normal!

N. BASOVSKAYA: And, as experts write, this is the last pope for whom reliable information has been preserved regarding the presence of illegitimate children. Everything else is hidden in the fog.

A. VENEDIKTOV: What a man! Moreover, he is 70 years old.

N. BASOVSKAYA: But he did not dare to show a policy of nepotism towards his son

A. VENEDIKTOV: Everyone knew that this was his son.

N. BASOVSKAYA: But he quite calmly promoted his two nephews highly. Because of this nepatism, over time, very noble families were born in Italy - Barghese, Ludovisi, Borgio, by the way, from the practice of nepatism. And so he elevated his two nephews not just anywhere, but to cardinals, i.e. It is also impossible to say that he personally, within himself and his practice, was absolutely pure, like crystal. And in the year of his election, after a short time, he was elected in May, in August...

A. VENEDIKTOV: Oh! Can I tell you how he reacted to the marriage of Henry of Navarre to Margaret of Valois? He was asked for permission because Henry of Navarre was a heretic. He writes to Charles IX: “I find no better way to put an end to the heretics than this alliance.” This is his first letter to Charles IX.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Get married to end it. But this marriage was tragic from the very beginning. And so he organized the solemn celebrations of St. Bartholomew’s Night. Only he and Philip II of Spain showed such public joy at the murder of approximately 2,000 Huguenots in one night, and then, over the next two weeks, an estimated 30,000 Protestants were killed in France. That is, celebration, fireworks, illumination, solemn procession, worship, making a special medal. This is incredible! And Philip II wrote a greeting to Catherine de Medici regarding the bloodshed, in which he said that he admired his son (this is Charles IX), that he had such a mother. And the mother that she has a son who allowed this, allowed it or sanctioned who knows what.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Moreover. Gregory XIII commissions Vasari, the famous painter, to paint a painting entitled “The Pope Approves the Murder of the Heretic Coligny.” And this painting is still in the Vatican.

N. BASOVSKAYA: The picture exists. The murder was brutal, cruel. Coligny was a middle-aged man, one might say an old man, who was stabbed to death, thrown from the balcony, and then his head was cut off. This is ferocity and welcoming rivers of blood is not very wonderful. What did they expect? After all, they really wanted to stop these militant popes. How to stop? What did the Council of Trent decide, and by what means can this be done? In general, the means, I would say, are hopeless. An index of banned books, which was only abolished in 1934. Before this there was an Index. Over time, Galileo disappeared from it, but there were Jan Hus, Spinoza, Voltaire, Rousseau, Stendhal, Hugo, a huge list of quite worthy people. To fight heresy in this way, so that people do not think wrongly, to assert the categorical superiority of the pope over the Council, a collegial body, to expand the activities of the Inquisition, excellent measures, but hopeless. The only relatively creative, rather than frightening, measure is to open additional schools.

A. VENEDIKTOV: They were called seminars.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Schools for Orthodox priests. The teachers were Jesuits, whom Gregory XIII adored, and the young people had to take an oath, a terrible oath, that all their lives they would fight for the true faith. They will not be distracted by anything else in life. What other ways were there for this energetic 70-year-old man to win? He sought to plant orthodox Catholicism in neighboring European countries, in Sweden, Ireland, and Russia. On his orders, Jesuit Posevina went to Russia to visit Ivan the Terrible. Shouldn't we persuade him to convert to the true, the only true - this is the Catholic faith. I didn't persuade. Not without success, Jesuit missionary preachers preached with the support of Pope Gregory XIII in China and Japan. And they even had some success. That is, at times he had the illusion that something was working out. He created a special college for foreigners in Rome, where the same Jesuits trained specialist preachers, missionaries, and fiery ones who would turn the world around and lead the way. Of course, it was a doomed business, but it looked like it had some results.

What inspired him? Why did Gregory XIII, like other militant popes, consider himself to have the right to rule over minds, and now we will see that over the calendar, time, too. How did it work out? I was thinking about it and flipped through some pages of history that show how this idea was born. Who exactly are Christian communities? These were communities of like-minded people, believers, and the only title, title, rank there was a charismatic, a person with charisma. That is, God-inspired, able to preach, able to lead people. That's all. There were no more positions. Then the presbyters, elders, and organizers appear. Then the deacons, those who serve joint meals, the so-called meals of love, where they eat together not just to eat, but at the same time enjoying bright ideas. And, finally, the bishops, who emerged as organizers of economic life. They owned the cash register, what do they need to exist on, there are some general needs, well, at least to provide for this meal financially. They mastered organizational activities and gradually the practice was introduced that bishops are those who are richer, because he will add something to this treasury. They began to appropriate from it later. First they added. And then the attitude towards ordinary believers changes. He is no longer a charismatic in honor, a God-inspired, sincere and ideological person, but a bishop, he is called a shepherd. And the flock and equal community suddenly begin to be called a flock, which is shepherded by this very bishop. That is, the transformation happened very slowly, gradually. And over time, an idea appeared. In the 6th century it already began to sound. In the 6th century, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the birth of barbarian kingdoms. That the Bishop of Rome, he is somehow special, he is the first among all others and a certain Bishop Marcellinus [ed. lat. Ammianus Marcellinus - ancient Roman historian (c. 330 - after 391 AD).], back at the beginning of the 4th century, began to call himself pope, and from the 6th century all Roman bishops began to be called popes, father and mentor.

Rome had rivals who said that no, that’s not right, the main argument was that here in Rome, the Apostle Peter was a bishop. But competitors fought and declared their rights. Jerusalem, Pela, the community of the banks of the Jordan, tried to prove that St. Peter created their communities, and not the Roman one. And then an absolutely devastating argument was put forward. Because the land of Rome is most abundantly watered with the blood of martyrs and great martyrs who were persecuted by the Roman emperors. This is where bishop number one should be. That is, this bishop number one, who began to be called the pope, he grew out of a completely different religious practice, sincere, open, equal, but having grown out of it, the popes considered themselves to have the right to lead the entire Christian world, firmly laying claim to it. When the Orthodox and Catholic churches separated in 1054, divided along the principles of nuances, dogma and worship, everyone thought that this was for a while. Today we know that this is a deep division. But, nevertheless, the Roman popes even after this did not abandon their claims to the fact that they are the rulers of minds, and in the person of Gregory XIII and time, fast-flowing.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Before you start talking about the calendar, I want to say that Gregory XIII used such a technique as creating monseates and permanent embassies. First. Embassies in all countries. How does a sovereign hold a permanent embassy?

N. BASOVSKAYA: Representation.

A. VENEDIKTOV: In all countries, including Protestant ones.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Today this seems to be the norm, but he came up with it. What was the goal? He separated religious tasks very little from general political ones. In any case, it is considered quite reliable that he prepared St. Bartholomew’s Night in England. And I dreamed that the same thing would happen there again. With the support of Philip II of Spain, such a gloomy figure, he prepared this. How? He officially excommunicated Elizabeth I from the Catholic Church. Although it is clear that she adhered to a different faith. But the very fact of excommunication is a spiritual, ideological preparation.

A. VENEDIKTOV: This is the release of Catholic subjects from the oath.

N. BASOVSKAYA: And that means St. Bartholomew’s Night is becoming more real. He declared her deposed. He is an active politician, and such a militant politician. These are steps that prepare the possibility of a Catholic uprising against Elizabeth, which will be considered not as a rebellion, but as an ideological act. And he supported several conspiracies with attempts on her life, which is not at all religious or ecclesiastical, but purely political. He justified the possible murder of Elizabeth by the danger she posed to the true faith. And so, preparing personnel to fight the reformation, preparing such possible actions, actions against the politician who does not suit him, he actually became an active politician and in some places succeeded. He incited religious passions and strife not only in England; in Switzerland he, in essence, managed to incite a civil war. In Switzerland, where the killings of Protestants began, like the Night of St. Bartholomew. In general, this is his ideal - St. Bartholomew's Night.

A. VENEDIKTOV: But you somehow turned it down!

N. BASOVSKAYA: He led to this. In the city of Valtellina, 600 Protestants were killed with his full approval. And as a result, several Antons temporarily left the Swiss Union and were content with the persecution of Protestants in the homeland of one of the leading movements of Protestantism. In this matter he had some “successes”, let’s put them in quotes, in Germany and Austria. Thus, in Austria, 62 thousand Protestants were forcibly converted to the true faith. And there were such attempts. That is, it seemed to him that with direct violence, political, bloody, elementary, open violence, spiritual violence, such as the Index of Forbidden Books and the education of such militant priests, church servants, it would be possible to stop...

A. VENEDIKTOV: ...this accident, like the reformation.

N. BASOVSKAYA: As he apparently thought. Although, who knows exactly how he thought, this is a terrible and unacceptable trend for him. And you know, looking at his actions, you say jokingly “bent.” I look at the facts and such active participation in political activities of a cruel plan, namely conspiracy, attempt on life...

A. VENEDIKTOV: ...which was quite common for the 16th century, by the way.

N. BASOVSKAYA: The current flock is trying to avoid this, of course. And in general, the current Christian Church quite correctly, in general, without nuances, understands that its affairs are moral matters and direct participation in political events is not the business of church ministers. Gregory XIII did not adhere to this concept. He is a politician as much as he is a servant of God. And for the 16th century, this is probably inevitable, because this is the century of the great spiritual rift, which we briefly ran through Western Europe and Central Europe. The picture turns out to be very tense. So it’s generally clear that time gave birth to such a figure. But consider this figure as...

A. VENEDIKTOV: ...a great reformer. He is a great reformer!

N. BASOVSKAYA: So it’s a calendar! Let's look at the calendar.

A. VENEDIKTOV: In fact, this is how he entered history. And the calendar remained.

N. BASOVSKAYA: The calendar remains, it travels all over the world, now international, although it did not immediately become so. What prompted him? This is unlikely to contribute to the fight against heresy. So, what is a calendar anyway? A complex phenomenon, since ancient times there have been several systems, we know. Lunar, solar and lunisolar and each is quite complex in its own way. And in ancient Egypt, ancient Greece. And based on the invention of the calendar, which shows the connection between the movements of celestial bodies and the changing seasons on earth, you need to be an astronomer and mathematician to clearly understand what a calendar is. On the basis of this phenomenon of people who have learned to connect these phenomena with earthly changes in nature, the concept of an era arises when each civilization chose some real or conditional event, from which they began to count historical time. The eras were varied. In Egypt, in general, this is the strangest phenomenon. There, each year of the reign of a new pharaoh was the first year, so there is no era there. In ancient Greece, the era was invented, from the first Olympic Games, roughly 776 BC. In 46 BC. Julius Caesar reformed the calendar until Gregory XIII.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I will note that then, when Rome was already a world state. There was already Egypt.

N. BASOVSKAYA: A world power. Julius Caesar could internally feel that he was reforming the counting of time in the then civilized world. He was advised by the Egyptian priest Sozigenes [ed. (Sosigenes) - Alexandrian scientist, lived in the 1st century. before the Nativity of Christ] switch to solar, before that there were Calentes, Nones, Ides, a confusing system, but the reform was carried out. This lunisolar calendar was adopted by Caesar and after his name it was called Julian. Three years of 365 days, one year of 366 days. Plus one day after February 28th. And the Council of Nicaea, Christian, in 325 adopted the Julian calendar and on the basis of this Julian calendar, inspired by the pagan Julius Caesar, an absolute pagan, dating was carried out, and its concept of an era was given. From the birth of Christ. And in the 6th century in Western Europe, the monk Dionysius, nicknamed Dionysius the Small, carried out recalculations and found out that 754 from the founding of Rome was the year of the birth of Christ. This is how the Julian calendar was established.

And what was noticed? That misunderstandings begin over time. Gradually, when calculating Easter, the date of Easter, it became clear that the date of Easter diverges from March 21. In the 16th century, it turned out that Easter was no longer on March 21, the vernal equinox, but on the 11th. And it often began to coincide with the Jewish Passover, which did not suit such Orthodox Christians as Gregory XIII. And inspired by this, to more accurately calculate Easter, so that the time of this great Christian holiday, coming from pagan traditions, so that the time of this great Christian holiday is calculated correctly, so that it corresponds not to the Jewish Passover, the Jewish one, but to the spring solstice, which connects this approach with pagan, by the way. And they were ordered to count. He created a commission of about 20 people, first 10, then 20. He attracted astronomers, the most notable of them being Lulius. In 1582 he issued a special bull, intergravisimos, regarding the creation of a new calendar. And, according to this bull, after October 4, an amendment came on October 15. The amendment was for 10 days. The difference with the Julian calendar continued to grow and in the XX and early XXI years reached 13 days. The Gregorian calendar then, in the 16th century

A. VENEDIKTOV: Gradually he was very accepted.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes, of course.

A. VENEDIKTOV: An anecdote. It is known that in Spain in 1616, Cervantes died on April 23, and in England Shakespeare died on April 23. But they did not die on the same day, because in England there was still the Julian calendar, and in Spain there was already the Gregorian calendar. That's the joke of history.

A. VENEDIKTOV: A person’s relationship with time is a complex thing. And all these calendar systems, when their first creators tried to strictly interact with the celestial bodies and the change of seasons as a result of measurement imperfections and the complexities of mathematical calculations, sooner or later lead to the fact that a person wants to control time.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I want to talk about Russia. It is known that Peter I switched to the Gregorian calendar, and the Russian Orthodox Church remained and remains in the Julian calendar. And so I discovered correspondence between Catherine II and who do you think? With Casanova. With that Casanova. What are they writing about? Do you think they write about love?

N. BASOVSKAYA: I think about love!

A. VENEDIKTOV: Nothing of the kind! Casanova convinces Catherine in a letter to force the Russian Orthodox Church to switch to the Gregorian calendar. And Ekaterina answers him literally as follows: “Complete confidence,” writes Ekaterina Casanova, “is liked by minds that are accustomed to questioning everything in important matters. Therefore, if the opportunity presents itself to have such confidence in small things, then it is necessary to use it. It seems to me - writes Catherine - that Gregory XIII, our hero, did not even need to give an account of his mistake, even if even he was sure that a mistake really existed. “I believe that a ruler should be,” Catherine writes further, “confident in the eyes of his subjects. But the Roman high priest could carry out this reform with such ease that would not have been possible in the Greek Church, which strictly adheres to ancient customs. Of course, my church would not disobey me if I ordered the exclusion of 11 days, but how upset they would be, seeing themselves forced to cancel the celebration of the day assigned to them for hundreds of saints, because it was included in the number of excluded days. In your calendar, for each day, for the most part, there is only one saint, but in ours there are 10 or 12 of them. You yourself can see that such an operation would be cruel, writes Catherine II to Casanova regarding the Gregorian calendar. What did they write about!!!

N. BASOVSKAYA: Definitely a smart woman. And, unlike Peter I, who simply subjugated the church to himself, she did not dare to do this, although she hinted that she would not mind. And Peter, decisive in everything, announced that from now on everything in Russia would be different. December 15, 1699, the beginning of the year, January 1, the era from the Nativity of Christ, the countdown from the creation of the world is canceled. And after December 31, 7208 from the creation of the world, January 1, 1700 AD came. So he proved that time obeys him.

A. VENEDIKTOV: And Pope Gregory XIII died at the age of 84 and now, by the way, in the Cathedral of St. Peter, on the floor of the chapel of St. Gregory you can find the coat of arms of his family, the coat of arms of Boncampagna. And there is his tombstone. Gregory XIII is one of the most revered popes in the Roman Catholic Church. Natalya Basovskaya and Alexey Venediktov. Until next time!

N. BASOVSKAYA: Until next time!

Gregory XIII (Ugo Boncompagni)

Gregory XIII.
Reproduction from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/

Gregory XIII(Ugo Boncompagni), 1572.V.13 - 1585.IV.10

Gregory XIII (1502-85), pope since 1572. One of the inspirers of the Counter-Reformation. He sought to spread Catholicism in the Russian state. Conducted a calendar reform (1582).

Gregory XIII (1.I.1502 - 10.IV.1585) - Pope since 1572, one of the inspirers of the European Catholic reaction that replaced the Reformation. With the participation of Gregory XIII, the Counter-Reformation won in Germany and Poland, Gregory XIII financially supported Catholics in France. He tried to create a Franco-Spanish coalition against England with the goal of defeating the Protestants there and tearing Ireland away from England; but these attempts failed, as did the desire of Gregory XIII to introduce Catholicism in Russia (Possevin’s mission of 1581), Japan, and China. Under Gregory XIII, the Jesuits became stronger, and the role of papal nuncios increased, becoming conductors of reactionary papal policies. Gregory XIII carried out a reform chronology (Gregorian calendar; see art. Calendar ).

Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 4. THE HAGUE - DVIN. 1963.

Sources: Verzhbovsky F.F., Vincent Laureo, Bishop of Mondov, papal nuncio in Poland 1574-78 and his unpublished reports... to the State Secretary of Pope Gregory XIII..., collection. and ed. F. Wierzbowski, Warsaw, 1887.

Gregory XIII, Pope. Gregorius Tertius Decimus. Worldly name: Ugo Boncompagni. Origin: Bologna (Italy). Years of life: January 7, 1502 - April 10, 1585 Years of pontificate: May 13, 1572 - April 10, 1585.

Ugo Boncompagni studied ecclesiastical and civil law at the University of Bologna, and, having received his doctorate, remained to teach there. Among his students were the later famous cardinals Alessandro Farnese, Cristoforo Madruzzi, Otto Trachsess von Waldburg, Reginald Pole, Carlo Borromeo and Stanislav Hosiusz. In 1539, Cardinal Parizzio summoned Ugo to Rome, where Paul III appointed him judge of the Capitol and papal abbreviator. Boncompagni attended the Council of Trent as a lawyer. Subsequently, he held various positions in the Curia, receiving his first initiation only in 1558, again worked at the Council of Trent, but as a representative of the pope, and in 1564 received the cardinal's hat. After death Pius V Hugo was elected pope and took the name Gregory XIII. Gregory first approved the Constitution of Pius V and created committees to combat abuses in the curia and to maintain the Index of Prohibited Books. The pope devoted one day a week to receiving visitors, and anyone could see the pontiff. Gregory appointed 34 cardinals. In general, he treated appointments very responsibly. Even though he gave cardinal's hats to two of his nephews, he cannot be accused of nepotism. The pope considered his nephews truly worthy of this title, unlike his illegitimate son Giacomo, who was just a gonfaloniere. Gregory considered high-quality training of priests and missionaries to be the best way to combat Protestantism and spread the faith. He founded at least 23 colleges and seminaries in Rome, headed, as a rule, by the Jesuits, with whom the pope especially sympathized. These educational institutions trained pastors for England, Germany, Scotland and many eastern countries. For example, in 1585, Gregory received ambassadors from three Japanese rulers who had converted to Christianity, and sent several Jesuit missionaries with them. To protect the position of the Catholic Church in Germany, a special Congregation for German Affairs was created and permanent nunciatures (embassies) were established in Vienna and Cologne. In 1576, Gregory sent the Jesuit Lars Nilsson to Sweden, who even managed to persuade Yuhana III to Catholicism, but a few years later the king again changed his religious views. Gregory sent two military expeditions to England to overthrow Elizabeth I, but both were unsuccessful. Gregory's hostility towards Protestants was so great that he approved the massacre of the Huguenots organized by the Catholic League in Paris (Bartholomew's Night) and served a thanksgiving service, although, of course, he was not involved in organizing the massacre. However, the most famous act of Gregory XIII is certainly the reform of the calendar. By the 16th century the calendar compiled under Julius Caesar was two weeks behind the solar year. In 1578, most Catholic countries adopted the new Gregorian calendar. Directly related to the calendar reform was the correction of the list of Roman martyrs in 1580 - 1584. In addition to colleges and seminaries, Gregory built a chapel in Rome in the Cathedral of St. Peter's, a granary, several fountains and laid the foundation for the Quirinal Palace, which was planned to be used as a residence instead of the Vatican. For Gregory's services in beautifying the city, the Romans erected a monument to him.

Used materials from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/

Affairs of Gregory XIII

He was an outstanding hierarch, an ascetic in his personal life. But his moral rules included “violence in the name of good.” This was the period when Catholicism waged a fierce struggle with Protestantism, moving from defense to counter-offensive. Gregory XIII began his reign with the organization of St. Bartholomew's Night, as he considered the Huguenots to be enemies of God who were subject to destruction. He accepted the head of the Huguenot leader as a symbol of the victory of Catholicism and ordered a medal to be knocked out for this occasion, like an emperor after a brilliant victory. He believed that he had performed an excellent operation, removed dead tissue and saved the body from infection and gangrene. For the Huguenots themselves, he considered it better to suffer on earth and thereby partially atone for their sins, than to spread false teaching and go to hell. He excommunicated the English Queen Elizabeth from the church in order to remove the oath of allegiance from her subjects.

He helped Philip of Spain drown the uprising in the Netherlands in blood, fearing that power would pass to the Protestants. He sent Jesuits to Protestant countries - England and the Netherlands - under the guise of teachers and educators. He laid the foundations of a union in Western Ukraine by attracting Orthodox Christians to Catholic seminaries led by Jesuits. At the same time, secret circulars prohibited encouraging the conversion of Orthodox Christians to Catholicism. It was considered more profitable to have supporters of Catholicism among the Orthodox themselves than to have obvious Catholics who could not influence the people.

The Roman Church was canonically severed and mystically disconnected from the Universal Church. In the new calendar, the solar-planetary system is highlighted and excluded from space. In the Catholic Church itself, Rome and the Pope became the center. And in the new calendar the only reference point is the Sun. The Roman Church, focusing on worldly civilization and culture, evolved and changed. In the Gregorian calendar, the true year, cosmic time is replaced by changing earthly time, depending on the movement of the equinox points and the acceleration of this movement. The Church-state needs an earthly calendar.

From the symphony of the Julian calendar, only two cycles remained in the Gregorian calendar: day and year, the steel harmonies were destroyed. Many people think that the alternation of common and leap years has been preserved, but this is not so. Of the four centuries, there were three leap years. The calendar's pulse became arrhythmic. Some astronomers - contemporaries of Gregory XIII - believed that the Gregorian calendar was a corruption of the Julian calendar. But the situation was more complicated. The main principles and guidelines of the Julian calendar were replaced. The Gregorian calendar ignores space. His strings of space are torn; only one string of time remains, stretched between the Earth and the Sun.

Rafail (Karelin) archimandrite. Calendar issue. “Christianity and Modernism” M.: Publishing House of the Moscow Metochion of the Holy Trinity Sergius Lavra, 1999. (Also published in the book: Calendar Question. Collection of articles. Publication of the Sretensky Monastery, 2000, pp. 39-41).

Read further:

Monastic orders and heresies(Catholic).

Date systems(reference article and bibliography).