Read also: H.H. Lange (1858-1921). One of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia II Congress of Soviets, its main decisions. The first steps of the new state power in Russia (October 1917 - the first half of 1918) V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 1 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 10 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 11 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 12 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 13 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 14 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 2 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 3 page V1: Socio-political and economic development of Russia at the end of XV 4 page

The leading thinkers of Russia in the 17th and especially the 18th centuries sought to substantiate the need for the spread of enlightenment and the free development of scientific knowledge, to free science from the tutelage of the church, to draw attention to the study of natural science in order to use incoming resources for progressive economic development Russia. In connection with this, the best representatives of philosophy and natural sciences turned to experience, to observations of natural phenomena, and strove for the practical application of scientific knowledge. Progressive Russian thinkers of the 18th century took a significant step from a religious idea to secular knowledge. But they have not yet risen to the pre-revolutionary, anti-serfdom outlook.

In the 18th century In Russia, especially in its second half, there was a stubborn struggle between the advanced, materialistic ideas of the most prominent representatives of Russian natural scientific and socio-philosophical thought of the 18th century and reactionary, idealistic ideas, which were often planted and supported in Russia mainly by foreigners, representatives of predominantly German science. This fight is chalk class character. The vast majority of Russian scientists from the 8th century came from the working strata of the people, looked at science as a means of enlightening the masses, developing the productive forces and raising the well-being of the people. Supporters of reactionary theories, leaders of the bureaucratic elite, representatives of the noble-landlord class reflected the interests of this class.

In 1725, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was opened, where foreign scientists were invited. Among the first academicians were those who published works on medical matters. So, Daniil published the works “On the movement of muscles, on the visual; RVS”, Leonard Euler - a work on hemodynamics, Duvernoy and Veit-echt - a number of anatomical works.

Economic needs necessitated the expansion and formation of the army, financial and other reforms.

In the events of the reforms of Peter I, considerable attention was paid to the medical craft. Russians who traveled to countries Western Europe, including Peter I himself, along with shipbuilding, manufactories and schools to acquaint there with hospitals, anatomical museums and outstanding doctors of Holland, Peter I got acquainted with advanced doctors, listened to lectures by Burgav, purchased his famous atomic collection from Ruysch for a large sum, visited Leveiguk and got acquainted with his micro-optical research.

In the XVIII century in Russia, the need for more doctors, primarily to meet the needs of the military, the service nobility and the emerging merchant class, as well as for medical care of factories and factories located in places remote from the administrative and cultural centers of the country. At the beginning of the 18th century, permanent military hospitals were created in Russia - land for servicing the army and admiralty for servicing the navy, the hospital was opened on November 21, 1707 in the eastern part of Moscow, across the Yauza River in a place for treating the sick. Later, hospitals for crippled soldiers were created in St. Petersburg, Kronstadt, Revel, Kyiv and Yekaterinburg. In 1718, land and admiralty military hospitals were opened in St. Petersburg, and in 1720, an admiralty hospital in Kronstadt.

In 1721, the Admiralty Regulations, drawn up with the participation of Peter I, were published, where a special section determined the tasks and forms of work in naval hospitals. In 1735, a special "General regulation on hospitals" was issued. The regulations clearly show the advanced nature of hospitals. At the head of each hospital was a doctor, the economic part of the hospital was subordinate to the medical one. Mandatory pathological autopsies of the corpses of those who died in the hospital were established, it was recommended to make sketches of all the most medically interesting patients and preparations. In 1745, according to the instructions for hospital schools in Russia, scientific and practical value autopsies. In 1754, the medical office drew up another instruction, which specified the forms of work of the pathologist.

In the XVIII century, Russian science in the field of medicine and medical education closed not with the overwhelming backward majority that dominated the medical faculties of many universities in Western Europe, but with the advanced, progressive for that time Leiden University. In contrast to the scholastic, purely bookish education of future doctors of medicine at the medical faculties of Western European universities that remained throughout the entire 17th century, the hospital schools of Russia from the first years of their existence built the education of future doctors practically. Organizing medical education, Russia and borrowed this advanced and not yet generally recognized method of teaching students at the bedside of the patient. It is no coincidence that schools for the training of doctors in Russia were created at hospitals. The task of training doctors in the 18th century was solved in Russia in an original, original way: the new kind higher educational institution for the training of doctors - schools based on large hospitals.

Russian hospital schools of the 18th century. The first hospital school for 50 students was organized in 1707 at the Moscow land hospital. In 1733, similar schools were opened at the land and admiralty (marine) hospitals in St. Petersburg, the admiralty hospitals in Kronstadt, with 10 assistant doctors and 20 students each. In 1756, the contingent of students in the St. Petersburg land hospital was increased to 50, and in the Admiralty - up to 30 students. In 1758, a school for 15 students was opened at the Kolyvano-Voskresensky factory hospital, which graduated about 160 doctors. From 1788 to 1796 there was a hospital school at the Elisavetgrad hospital, which graduated 152 doctors.

Peter I ordered the construction and organization of the Moscow hospital by the Dutch doctor Nikolai Bidloo, a student of Burgava, the nephew of the anatomist, whose atlas Peter I himself used. Peter I also ordered him to organize a school for training doctors at the hospital. As teachers at the hospital, foreign doctors were invited, unfamiliar with the Russian language, who had the opportunity to teach only in Latin and foreign languages(mostly Dutch and German). Foreign doctors who were in the Russian service, fearing competition, often tried to counteract the training of domestic Russian doctors. Some therefore recommended that only the children of foreigners living in Moscow be admitted to the hospital school.

Among the foreign doctors there were even those who claimed that the Russians were not able to acquire the extensive knowledge necessary for a doctor. Later in 1715, in a letter to Peter I, he spoke about this: “Many surgeons advised that I should not teach this (Russian) young man to the people, saying that you would not be able to do this thing.” To Bidloo's credit, it should be noted that he correctly understood the tasks that were set before him, and honestly served the interests of Russia, resolutely overcoming the opposition of foreign doctors. Bidloo was not afraid of difficulties and found a way out: he received permission to recruit students from among the students of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and the schools of the spiritual department, where students studied Greek and Latin, to the hospital school.

The teaching program at hospital schools included all theoretical and practical medical disciplines to a greater extent than at the medical faculties of foreign universities. Theoretical disciplines were taught: human anatomy with physiology, elements of histology and forensic medicine, pathological anatomy, "medical matter", including pharmacognosy, mineralogy, botany, pharmacy and pharmacology. With the transformation in 1786 of hospital schools into medical and surgical schools, chemistry, mathematics and physics were introduced. Anatomical museums and botanical gardens (“pharmaceutical gardens”) were organized at the hospitals.

Clinical disciplines were taught in hospital departments, the training of surgery was considered paramount. The course [internal diseases] included familiarization of students with infectious, skin-venereal and childhood diseases. From 1763 the study of midwifery was introduced. The senior and junior doctors of the hospital conducted lecture courses on therapy, pharmacology and anatomy, the head doctor taught a course in surgery, the hospital operator led the anatomical and surgical practice. Doctors conducted practical classes with students in surgery and internal medicine. In hospital schools, they learned not only from books, students regularly worked in the hospital, “where every day there are from one hundred to two hundred patients.” Students cared for the sick, helped with dressings, worked<в аптеке, в аптекарском огороде по выращиванию лекарственных растений, присутствовали на операциях, судебно медицинских и патологоанатомических вскрытиях. Благодаря этому учащиеся получали пир окне знания и практические навыки.

Russian scientists in the 18th century, for the first time in the world, they developed and put into practice a new system of medical education, providing the training of highly qualified Doctors. Graduates of hospital schools in Russia in the 18th century made up the bulk of the leaders of "medicine and played a big role in the development of domestic health care."

The characteristic features of the 18th -century hospital schools were: the high general educational level of students who came from educational institutions of the theological department, familiar with the Latin language, a unreference, many classical works of Greek and Latin writers and philosophers, their democratic origin, since immigrants came from poorly wealthy segments of the population (children of petty clergy, consists, and courtesy, and court ny singers, merchants, soldier children, etc.). Education in hospital schools lasted from 5 to 7 years and ended with a strict public examination: the examiner, in addition to answering questions on anatomy, physiology, surgery and internal medicine, performed 3-4 operations on a corpse with his own hand in the presence of examiners.

Doctors educated in hospital schools occupied a significant place in Russian medicine, especially in the middle and second half of the 18th century. They were part of the active armies, were participants in many scientific expeditions (Kamchatka Bering, Brazilian) and round-the-world voyages of Russian ships in the 18th century. Some of them became teachers in hospital schools in the second half of the 18th century.

Education system future doctors in Russia was built and improved throughout the XVIII century. The beginning was laid in 1707 by N. Bidloo. In 1735, the General Regulations on Hospitals included a detailed chapter on the hospital school, which defined the tasks and periods of study in it. In 1753-1760. P. 3. Kondoidi and M. I. Sheiya improved the teaching of anatomy and clinics, arranged clinical wards, mandatory autopsies were introduced, the teaching of obstetrics and women's diseases, the order of examinations was changed. Many leading physicians (P. I. Pogoretsky, A. M. Shumlyansky, M. M. Terekhovsky and others) took an active part in the development of issues of teaching medicine in the second half of the 18th century. In 1782, D.S. Samoilovich, while in France, wrote "Speech to the students of the hospital schools of the Russian Empire", where he highlighted in detail the tasks of medical education. In 1785

M. M. Tsrekhovsky and A. M. Shumlyansky were sent on a mission to "collect and deliver accurate information about the structure and organization of higher medical schools in different countries of Europe." After this trip, they developed proposals for improving medical education, taking into account the expansion of medical knowledge by the end of the 18th century and the division of medical sciences that had begun.

Hospital schools as the main form of training doctors in Russia existed for about 80 years, that is, for almost the entire 18th century. In 1786 the hospital schools were transformed into medical and surgical schools. In 1798, medical and surgical academies were organized in St. Petersburg and Moscow with more extensive programs, with a new curriculum.

Foundation of the Moscow University and the medical faculty attached to it. Considering the need for “multiplication in Russia of Russian doctors and surgeons, of which there are very few,” M.V. Lomonosov wrote in 1748 in the draft university regulations at the St. In 1754 M. V. Lomonosov recommended the same for the organized Moscow University. At the same time, M. V. Lomonosov raised the issue of granting Moscow University the right to “produce worthy students into academic degrees.”

In 1755 Moscow University was opened. Since 1758, Kerstens began to give lectures here on physics "for the preparation of those who wish to study medicine", then in the following years - chemistry, mineralogy and chemistry in connection with the natural history of simple pharmaceutical drugs, medical substance. In 1764, a professor was invited to the department of anatomy, and the medical faculty began to function. In 1765, the tasks of the medical faculty were more precisely defined. “The medical class or faculty has its own exercise in the discussion of human health and life. Practical and theoretical medicine, chemistry, botany, anatomy and surgery are taught in it, and such people are made from natural subjects who, like healers and doctors, help their fellow citizens, have care for their health and thus can advance the common good in countless cases.

At Moscow University in the first decades of its existence, students were recruited not annually, but approximately once every 3 years. Each professor continued his course for 2-3 years and only upon completion of it began a new course for a new composition of students. Not having its own clinics, the medical faculty of Moscow University in the first decades of its existence was limited to the theoretical training of future doctors. S. G. Zybelii, teaching internal diseases, occasionally showed patients and only at the end of the 18th century was able to deliver clinical training in a small amount.

In the second half of the 18th century, Moscow University was the center around which prominent representatives of Russian medical science, both Russian science and social thought as a whole, concentrated.

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The development of feudal society in Russia in the 17th century entered a new stage, which was characterized by the dominance of serfdom, the growth of commodity production, and the further strengthening of the Russian centralized feudal state. Since the 17th century, a new period of Russian history has begun, when a process of merging of all Russian regions, lands and principalities into one whole took place, caused by the concentration of local markets into one all-Russian market. From the 17th century, capitalist relations arose in Russia, and the Russian bourgeoisie took shape. However, the country continued to dominate the feudal serf system, which hampered the development of bourgeois relations. Within the framework of the Russian multinational state, the formation of the Russian nation took place. In the depths of the feudal-serf system, a new, bourgeois stratum of society, the merchant class, grew and rose.

In contrast to many countries of Western Europe, the development of bourgeois relations in Russia in the 17th-first half of the 18th century took place in peculiar conditions of strengthening feudal relations. The feudal state, taking measures to plant trade and industry, defended the interests of the ruling class of landlords with all its might and means and guarded the feudal system, turning even those peasants who had previously been free into serfs. The strengthening of the Russian state was accompanied by an increase in feudal oppression. The consequence of this was the widespread development of the anti-serfdom peasant movement in Russia and Ukraine (the uprisings of Razin, Pugachev, and others).

A progressive role in the development of productive forces and national culture in Russia, in strengthening the centralized feudal state was played by the reforms carried out by Peter I in the interests of landlords and merchants. State-owned factories were built in the country, roads and canals were laid, cities arose, a regular army was created, a navy was built, etc. By encouraging trade, creating manufactories, reforms and other means, the state tried to adapt feudal production relations and the political system to the needs of the development of the productive forces of society, create conditions for the development of industry and trade, for eliminating the technical and military backwardness of serf Russia.

It cannot be considered that only the personal will of Peter I produced this revolution in Russia, the result of which was the transformation of Russia into a powerful state. The reign of Peter I “was one of those epochs, absolutely inevitable in the process of social development, when gradually accumulating quantitative changes turn into qualitative ones. Such a transformation is always accomplished by means of leaps. Under Peter I, the process of the formation of a new culture, which began in the previous era, continued.

The process of economic development of Russia in the XVIII century was accompanied by the rise of Russian culture, science and art. Anti-feudal uprisings and, above all, peasant uprisings of the 17th and 18th centuries gave a strong impetus to the development of progressive social thought in Russia, the emergence of anti-serfdom ideas among the advanced nobility and raznochintsy, first enlightening, and then revolutionary. niya.

The leading thinkers of Russia in the 17th and especially the 18th centuries sought to substantiate the need for the spread of enlightenment and the free development of scientific knowledge, to free science from the tutelage of the church, to draw attention to the study of natural science in order to use incoming resources for the progressive economic development of Russia. In connection with this, the best representatives of philosophy and natural sciences turned to experience, to observations of natural phenomena, and strove for the practical application of scientific knowledge. Progressive Russian thinkers of the 18th century took a significant step from a religious idea to secular knowledge. But they have not yet risen to the pre-revolutionary, anti-serfdom outlook.

In the 18th century In Russia, especially in its second half, there was a stubborn struggle between the advanced, materialistic ideas of the most prominent representatives of Russian natural scientific and socio-philosophical thought of the 18th century and reactionary, idealistic ideas, which were often planted and supported in Russia mainly by foreigners, representatives of predominantly German science. This struggle has a class character. The overwhelming majority of Russian scientists from the 8th century came from the working strata of the people, looked at science as a means of educating the masses, developing productive forces and raising the well-being of the people. Supporters of reactionary theories, leaders of the bureaucratic elite, representatives of the noble-landlord class reflected the interests of this class.

In 1725, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was opened, where foreign scientists were invited. Among the first academicians were those who published works on medical issues. So, Daniil published the works “On the movement of muscles, on the visual; RVS”, Leonard Euler - a work on hemodynamics, Duvernoy and Veit-echt - a number of anatomical works.

Economic needs necessitated the expansion and formation of the army, financial and other reforms.

In the events of the reforms of Peter I, considerable attention was paid to the medical craft. Russians who traveled to the countries of Western Europe, including Peter I himself, along with shipbuilding, manufactories and schools to acquaint them with hospitals, anatomical museums and outstanding doctors of Holland, Peter I got acquainted with advanced doctors, listened to lectures by Burgav, purchased from Ruysch for a large sum of his famous atomic collection, visited Leveiguk and got acquainted with his micro-optical research.

In the 18th century in Russia, the need for a larger number of doctors was especially revealed, primarily to meet the needs of the military, the serving nobility and the emerging merchant class, as well as for medical care of factories and plants located in places remote from the administrative and cultural centers of the country. At the beginning of the 18th century, permanent military hospitals were created in Russia - land for serving the army and admiralty for serving the navy, the hospital was opened on November 21, 1707 in the eastern part of Moscow, across the Yauza River in a place for treating the sick. Later, hospitals for crippled soldiers were created in St. Petersburg, Kronstadt, Revel, Kyiv and Yekaterinburg. In 1718, land and admiralty military hospitals were opened in St. Petersburg, and in 1720, an admiralty hospital in Kronstadt.

In 1721, the Admiralty Regulations, compiled with the participation of Peter I, were published, where a special section defined the tasks and forms of work in naval hospitals. In 1735, a special "General regulation on hospitals" was issued. The regulations clearly show the advanced nature of hospitals. At the head of each hospital was a doctor, the economic part of the hospital was subordinate to the medical one. Mandatory pathological autopsies of the corpses of those who died in the hospital were established, it was recommended to make sketches of all the most medically interesting patients and preparations. In 1745, according to the instructions for hospital schools in Russia, the scientific and practical significance of autopsies was emphasized. In 1754, the medical office drew up another instruction, which specified the forms of work of the pathologist.

In the XVIII century, Russian science in the field of medicine and medical education closed not with the overwhelming backward majority that dominated the medical faculties of many universities in Western Europe, but with the advanced, progressive for that time Leiden University. Unlike the education of future doctors of medicine at the medical faculties of Western European universities, which remained throughout the entire 17th century scholastic, purely bookish, the hospital schools of Russia from the first years of their existence built the education of future doctors practically. Organizing medical education, Russia borrowed this advanced and not yet generally recognized by that time method of teaching students at the bedside. It is no coincidence that schools for the training of doctors in Russia were created at hospitals. The task of training doctors in the 18th century was solved in Russia in an original, original way: a new type of higher educational institution for training doctors was created - schools based on large hospitals.

Russian hospital schools of the 18th century. The first hospital school for 50 students was organized in 1707 at the Moscow land hospital. In 1733, similar schools were opened at the land and admiralty (sea) hospitals in St. Petersburg, the admiralty hospitals in Kronstadt, with 10 assistant doctors and 20 students each. In 1756, the contingent of students in the St. Petersburg land hospital was increased to 50, and in the Admiralty - up to 30 students. In 1758, a school for 15 students was opened at the Kolyvano-Voskresensky factory hospital, which graduated about 160 doctors. From 1788 to 1796 there was a hospital school at the Elisavetgrad hospital, which graduated 152 doctors.

Peter I instructed the construction and organization of the Moscow hospital to the Dutch doctor Nikolai Bidloo, a student of Burgava, the nephew of the anatomist, whose atlas Peter I himself used. Peter I also instructed him to organize a school for training doctors at the hospital. As teachers at the hospital, foreign doctors were invited, unfamiliar with the Russian language, who had the opportunity to teach only in Latin and foreign languages ​​\u200b\u200b(mainly Dutch and German). Foreign doctors who were in the Russian service, fearing competition, often tried to counteract the training of domestic Russian doctors. Some therefore recommended that only the children of foreigners living in Moscow be admitted to the hospital school.

Among the foreign doctors there were even those who claimed that the Russians were not able to acquire the extensive knowledge necessary for a doctor. Later in 1715, in a letter to Peter I, he spoke about this: “Many surgeons advised me not to teach this (Russian) young man to the people, saying that you would not be able to do this thing.” To Bidloo's credit, it should be noted that he correctly understood the tasks that were set before him, and honestly served the interests of Russia, resolutely overcoming the opposition of foreign doctors. Bidloo was not afraid of difficulties and found a way out: he received permission to recruit students from among the students of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and the schools of the spiritual department, where students studied Greek and Latin, to the hospital school.

The teaching program at hospital schools included all theoretical and practical medical disciplines to a greater extent than at the medical faculties of foreign universities. Theoretical disciplines were taught: human anatomy with physiology, elements of histology and forensic medicine, pathological anatomy, "medical matter", including pharmacognosy, mineralogy, botany, pharmacy and pharmacology. With the transformation in 1786 of hospital schools into medical and surgical schools, chemistry, mathematics and physics were introduced. Anatomical museums and botanical gardens (“pharmaceutical gardens”) were organized at the hospitals.

Clinical disciplines were taught in hospital departments, the training of surgery was considered paramount. The course [internal diseases] included familiarization of students with infectious, skin-venereal and childhood diseases. From 1763 the study of midwifery was introduced. The senior and junior doctors of the hospital taught lecture courses on therapy, pharmacology and anatomy, the head doctor taught a course in surgery, the hospital operator led the anatomical and surgical practice. Doctors conducted practical classes with students on surgery and internal diseases. In hospital schools, they learned not only from books, students regularly worked in the hospital, “where every day there are from one hundred to two hundred patients.” The students cared for the sick, helped with dressings, worked<в аптеке, в аптекарском огороде по выращиванию лекарственных растений, присутствовали на операциях, судебно медицинских и патологоанатомических вскрытиях. Благодаря этому учащиеся получали пир окне знания и практические навыки.

Russian scientists in the 18th century, for the first time in the world, they developed and put into practice a new system of medical education, providing the training of highly qualified Doctors. Graduates of hospital schools in Russia in the 18th century made up the bulk of the leaders of "medicine and played a big role in the development of domestic health care."

The characteristic features of the hospital schools of the 18th century were: the high general educational level of students who came from educational institutions of the ecclesiastical department, familiar with the Latin language, philosophy, many classical works of Greek and Latin writers and philosophers, their democratic origin, since people from low-income strata of the population (children of petty clergy, doctors, Cossacks, court singers, merchants, soldiers' children, etc.) entered hospital schools. ). Education in hospital schools lasted from 5 to 7 years and ended with a strict public examination: the examiner, in addition to answering questions on anatomy, physiology, surgery and internal medicine, performed 3-4 operations on the corpse with his own hand in the presence of the examiners.

Doctors educated in hospital schools occupied a significant place in Russian medicine, especially in the middle and second half of the 18th century. They were part of the active armies, were members of many scientific expeditions (Kamchatka Bering, Brazilian) and round-the-world voyages of Russian ships in the 18th century. Some of them became teachers in hospital schools in the second half of the 18th century.

Education system future doctors in Russia was built and improved throughout the 18th century. The beginning was laid in 1707 by N. Bidloo. In 1735, the General Regulations on Hospitals included a detailed chapter on the hospital school, which defined the tasks and periods of study in it. In 1753-1760. P. 3. Kondoidi and M. I. Sheiya improved the teaching of anatomy and clinics, arranged clinical wards, mandatory autopsies were introduced, the teaching of obstetrics and women's diseases, the order of examinations was changed. Many leading doctors (P. I. Pogoretsky, A. M. Shumlyansky, M. M. Terekhovsky and others) took an active part in the development of issues of teaching medicine in the second half of the 18th century. In 1782, D.S. Samoylovich, while in France, wrote “Speech to listeners of hospital schools of the Russian Empire”, where he highlighted in detail the tasks of medical education. In 1785

M. M. Tsrekhovsky and A. M. Shumlyansky were sent on a mission to "collect and deliver accurate information about the structure and organization of higher medical schools in different European countries." After this trip, they developed proposals for improving medical education, taking into account the expansion of medical knowledge by the end of the 18th century and the division of medical sciences that had begun.

Hospital schools as the main form of training doctors in Russia existed for about 80 years, that is, for almost the entire 18th century. In 1786, hospital schools were transformed into medical and surgical schools. In 1798, medical and surgical academies were organized in St. Petersburg and Moscow with more extensive programs, with a new curriculum.

Foundation of the Moscow University and the medical faculty attached to it. Considering the need to “multiply Russian doctors and surgeons in Russia, of which there are very few,” M.V. Lomonosov wrote in 1748 in the draft regulation of the university at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences: “I think that the university should definitely have three faculties: law, medicine and philosophy (theological is left to synodal schools).” In 1754 M. V. Lomonosov recommended the same for the organized Moscow University. At the same time, M. V. Lomonosov raised the question of granting Moscow University the right to “produce worthy students into scientific degrees.”

In 1755 Moscow University was opened. Since 1758, Kerstens began to lecture here on physics "for the preparation of those who wish to study medicine", then in the following years - chemistry, mineralogy and chemistry in connection with the natural history of simple pharmaceutical medicines, medical substance. In 1764, a professor was invited to the department of anatomy, and the medical faculty began to function. In 1765, the tasks of the medical faculty were more precisely defined. “The medical class or faculty has its own exercise in the discussion of human health and life. Practical and theoretical medicine, chemistry, botany, anatomy and surgery are taught in it, and such people are made from natural subjects who, as healers and doctors, help their fellow citizens, have care for their health and thus can contribute to the common good in countless cases.

At Moscow University in the first decades of its existence, students were recruited not annually, but approximately once every 3 years. Each professor continued his course for 2-3 years, and only upon completion of it began a new course for a new composition of students. Not having its own clinics, the medical faculty of Moscow University in the first decades of its existence was limited to the theoretical training of future doctors. S. G. Zybelii, teaching internal diseases, occasionally showed patients and only at the end of the 18th century was able to provide a small amount of clinical training.

In the second half of the 18th century, Moscow University was the center around which prominent representatives of domestic medical science, both Russian science and social thought as a whole, concentrated.

Measures for the organization of medical care to the population of Russia in the XVIII century.

Among the administrative reforms of Peter I, there were measures in the medical field: a medical office was organized, a doctor was placed at its head from 1716, and pharmacies were opened in a number of cities. In 1718, a "tool hut" was organized in St. Petersburg for the manufacture of surgical instruments. They began to use and study the therapeutic use of mineral springs in the Olonets region, Lipetsk and Staraya Russa. Measures of a sanitary nature were carried out: they began to take into account the birth rate and mortality, there was supervision of food products in the markets, decrees were issued on the improvement of Moscow. The high morbidity and mortality of the Russian population, especially infant mortality, worried the best representatives of medicine. In the middle of the 18th century, reforms were carried out in the field of healthcare: in 1763 the Medical College was organized, the number of doctors in the cities was increased, great attention was paid to medical education and

training of medical specialists and teachers. In 1763-1771. in Moscow and St. Petersburg, educational homes were opened with obstetric institutions attached to them, which served as schools for the preparation of midwives. In connection with the division into provinces, transformations were carried out in medical practice: provincial medical boards were created, and the positions of county doctors were introduced. In 1775, orders of public charity were created in the provinces, under whose jurisdiction civilian hospitals were transferred.

In the history of Russian medical science and medical education in the middle of the 18th century, a prominent role was played by Pavel Zakharovich Kondoidi (1710-1760), a Greek by birth, brought to Russia at an early age and brought up in Russia. In 1732, P. 3. Kondoidi graduated from the medical faculty of Leiden University and, returning to Russia, served as a military doctor. In 1741-1747. P. 3. Kondoidi was an assistant to the general director of the medical office and actually supervised the medical affairs of Russia. A few years later he was again involved in the leadership of the medical administration and from 1753 to 1760 he was the chief director of the Medical Office.

Kondoidi was the first outstanding medical administrator in Russia: under him, numerous instructions were drawn up for military sanitary affairs, instructions to general staff doctors, divisional doctors, field medical officer of the army, military doctors, on treating patients with smallpox, measles and other diseases accompanied by a rash, on examining the disabled or incapable of military service, etc. With the direct participation of P. 3. Kondoidi The Russian military pharmacopoeia was compiled. He took the initiative in organizing midwifery and training of scientific midwives. P. 3. Kondoidi's merits are significant in the development and improvement of the system of medical education in Russia, the improvement of teaching in hospital schools. At the suggestion of Kondoidi, M. I. Shein translated into Russian and published at public expense textbooks on Geister's anatomy and Platner's surgery. P. 3. Kondoidi organized (after a break) the sending of doctors who graduated from hospital schools to foreign universities to receive a doctorate in medicine, without which it was impossible to become a teacher at a hospital school. P. 3. Kondoidi introduced scientific and medical meetings (the prototype of conferences and scientific medical societies), organized a medical library, was the initiator in the creation of medical topographic descriptions and planned a permanent publication for the publication of the works of doctors.

In the second half of the 18th century, Russia played leading role in carrying out smallpox vaccination in the form of variolation. This event did not meet with opposition in Russia, as it was in some countries of Western Europe. Doctors and the Russian public have shown an understanding of the importance of variolation. Despite the difficulties due to the lack of trained workers in the field, variolation became widespread in Russia: vaccination stations (“smallpox houses”) were organized, and popular science literature was printed. The same was later true of smallpox vaccination. In 1795 Jenner carried out the first vaccination in England, and in 1801 the first vaccination against smallpox was carried out in the Moscow Orphanage with a vaccine received from Jenner.

In the 18th century, Russia suffered several epidemics of the plague. The epidemic of 1770-1772 was the most widespread, striking and claiming many victims in Moscow and in Russia in general. Leading domestic doctors D. S. Samoylovich, A. F. Shafonsky, S. G. Zybelil

The table of the first Russian anatomical atlas, published in 1744, often fought with the disease with danger to life, studied the clinic and etiology of the plague.

Questions of medicine and organizations of medical care to the population occupied the progressive public of Russia in the 18th century: they were given considerable attention in the works of the Free Economic Society, established in 1765, in the publishing activities of N. I. Novikov, in the works of M. V. Lomonosov, A. N. Radishchev.

The study of printed works and archival manuscripts suggests that in the second half of the 18th century, the leading doctors of Russia (N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, M. Gamaleya, N. Karpinsky, I. Protasov, D. Samoilovich. Ya. Sapolovnch and others) developed issues of organizing hospital care, conducting sanitary-hygienic and epidemiological measures, compiled numerous medical and topographic descriptions of various parts and cities of Russia.

The advanced ideas and numerous practical proposals of Russian doctors of the 18th century, aimed at improving the medical and sanitary services for the population, in the conditions of the autocratic serf system remained in most cases unrealized.

M. V. Lomonosov. The significance of his natural scientific discoveries and materialistic philosophy for the development of medicine. The beginning of a new period in the development of science and social thought in Russia, the emergence of an integral system of materialistic philosophy is associated with the name of the great M. V. Lomonosov.

Having deeply studied and mastered everything valuable and positive that natural scientists and philosophers in European countries gave, M.V. Lomonosov rejected idealism and metaphysical explanations of natural phenomena, which were given by many scientists in the 17th-18th centuries. M. V. Lomonosov was alien to medieval scholasticism. Blind admiration for authorities, for obsolete theories, he considered a serious brake on the development of genuine science. M. V. Lomonosov was an encyclopedically educated naturalist-thinker who paved new paths in the most diverse areas of scientific knowledge. His discoveries and generalizations were far ahead of contemporary science.

M. V. Lomonosov was an outstanding representative of the natural-science materialism of the 18th century. Lomonosov considered it impossible for spiders to exist without experience and observation: “I value one experience higher than a thousand thoughts born only of the imagination.” However, no less important, in his opinion, is comprehending experience and observations, bringing them into a system, building theories and hypotheses. He criticized bare empiricism, unable to give a generalization from a multitude of disparate facts. M. V. Lomonosov developed the materialistic theory of knowledge.

The most characteristic feature of his work was a brilliant ability for theoretical thinking, for broad generalizations of experimental data on natural phenomena. Acting as an innovator, boldly breaking the false ideas and outdated traditions existing in science. MV Lomonosov laid the foundations for a new, scientific view of nature, matter and motion. He put forward the hypothesis of the atomic and molecular structure of matter, and not as an abstract natural-philosophical concept, which was done before him, but as a natural science hypothesis based on experimental data. M. V. Lomonosov consistently developed this hypothesis about the structure of matter into a coherent scientific system and extended it to all physical and chemical phenomena known at that time.

M. V. Lomonosov discovered the law of conservation of matter. The original formulation was: given to him in a letter to Euler in 1748, then in 1756.

in Reflections on the Nature of Heat. The law was finally formulated in the speech “Discourse on the hardness and liquid of bodies” in 1760. Having developed the doctrine of atoms and their motion, having discovered and scientifically substantiated the law of the constancy of matter and motion, M.V. Lomonosov put it at the basis of the universal law of nature and made many natural scientific and philosophical conclusions from it. He gave a natural-scientific and philosophical explanation of the position of materialism about the unity of matter and motion.

The significance of MV Lomonosov's discovery was truly enormous, not only for chemistry, but for the whole of natural science and materialistic philosophy. Having discovered the law of conservation of matter and motion, the great scientist rejected the metaphysical position that motion is something external in relation to matter and that therefore it can be destroyed and arise from nothing. The formulation of the law of conservation of matter and motion given by him includes:

1) the idea of ​​the conservation of motion, under the sign of which the natural science of the 19th century developed further, when the law of conservation and transformation of energy was discovered;

2) the idea of ​​the inseparability of matter and motion, under the sign of which modern natural science develops.

The materialistic philosophical views of M. V. Lomonosov were closely connected with his research and discoveries in the field of physics and chemistry. These studies and discoveries were the natural scientific basis of the materialistic worldview of M. V. Lomonosov. In turn, the materialism of M. V. Lomonosov invariably served as a theoretical source in his scientific research, in substantiating and developing a new direction in natural science, whose supporters adhered to a spontaneous dialectical view of nature.

The beginnings of spontaneous dialectics, along with a conscious materialistic understanding of nature, were clearly manifested in the worldview of M. V. Lomonosov. Remaining within the framework of mechanistic materialism, at the same time, he dealt a significant blow to the metaphysical worldview, considering phenomena in nature in the process of their development. So, in the work “On the Layers of the Earth” in 1763, M.V. Lomonosov wrote about the evolutionary development of the animal and plant world and made an important conclusion that not only individual bodies, but also nature as a whole are changing.

The outstanding discoveries and bold theoretical generalizations of MV Lomonosov in natural science were a powerful ideological source for the development of the materialistic worldview in the second half of the 18th century and in subsequent periods.

The materialistic philosophical, natural-science views and socio-political democratic views of Lomonosov had a great influence on the development of natural science and medicine in Russia. For many years in the second half of the 18th century and in the 19th century, they were the scientific basis for the development of domestic medicine among the students and followers of M.V. Lomonosov.

Lomonosov explained the process of oxidation and combustion and thus established the nature of respiration. He was a staunch opponent of the theory of "weightless" phlogiston, 17 years before Lavoisier, for the first time, he clearly formulated the position on the chemical nature of oxidation. Quantitative studies of the chemical composition of various substances at the time of M. V. Lomonosov were just beginning. The systematic use of balances in chemical experiments, which began in the middle of the 18th century, found one of the pioneers and ardent adherents in the person of M.V. Lomonosov. The law of conservation of matter, quantitative analysis, explanation of combustion processes were the basis for future research by physiologists and biochemists.

M. V. Lomonosov emphasized the importance of chemistry for medicine. “A physician without a satisfied knowledge of chemistry cannot be perfect. She recognizes the natural mixture of blood and nourishing juices, she discovers the addition of healthy and harmful food. V. Lomonosov also emphasized the need to study anatomy.

Lomonosov edited the translation of anatomical terms for the atlas made by his student, one of the first domestic anatomists A.P. Protasov.

Especially important for the history of medicine is the letter written by M. V. Lomonosov in 1761 to the prominent statesman of that time I. I. Shuvalov “On the reproduction and preservation of the Russian people”, in which he drew attention to a number of issues related to the state of medicine in Russia in his time. poor care during childbirth, high mortality of children during childbirth and in early childhood, high morbidity and mortality in children and adults, lack of medical care both for the civilian population of Russia and in the army.

Lomonosov not only pointed out the shortcomings, but also set the task of improving medical care for the population, increasing the number of doctors, medical institutions, pharmacies, compiling and publishing books accessible to a wide range of people about assisting in childbirth and treating children. He urged to improve childcare, fight against anti-hygienic customs in everyday life, in particular those associated with church rites, and considered measures to combat child mortality.

The appeals of M. V. Lomonosov largely remained unfulfilled, but in a number of points, for example, regarding the improvement of obstetric care and the preparation of midwives, the leading doctors of the second half of the 18th century (N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, D. S. Samoilovich, A. M. Shumlyansky) in their medical practice and sanitary and educational activities followed the precepts of Lomonosov. M. V. Lomonosov fought against foreign scientists who hindered the development of Russian science. Exposing anti-Russian tendencies in the historical and ethnographic works of G. Miller, he wrote that this author "most of all looks out for stains on the clothes of the Russian body, going through many of its true decorations."

The leading role of Russian scientists of the XVIII century in the development of evolutionary doctrine. Wolf Caspar Friedrich (1734-1794) studied medicine in Berlin and Halle. In 1759 he published his dissertation "Theory of Generation", in 1764 under the same title a more detailed work (Theorie von der Generation)2. In Germany, Wolf's work was not recognized, met with sharp opposition from Albrecht Haller. Wolf was not elected to the chair of physiology. In 1764, Wolf accepted an invitation from the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, moved to Russia, and worked in Russia for 30 years until the end of his life.

At that time, the theory of preformism was popular, according to which it was believed that in an egg or in a spermatozoon there exists (pre-formed, re-formed) in a miniature and folded form a formed organism and that the development of the embryo is only the unfolding of what exists. Wolff criticized this metaphysical theory of preformation and developed a progressive theory of epigenesis for that time. Wolf came to this theory on the basis of his own experimental data on the study of the initial stage of development of plants and animals. In his work The Theory of Origin, Wolf traced how and when leaves, flowers and their parts arise in plants, how and when fruits and seeds are formed. Wolf studied the origin of individual organs of the animal organism on a chicken embryo. In contrast to the metaphysical ideas of the pre-formists, Wolf found that neither plants nor animals have any "preformed", that is, pre-prepared organs. Studies of the chicken embryo have shown that, for example, the heart of the embryo arises only after other, simpler parts of it have formed. Wolf established that the birth and development of every living being is not a purely quantitative increase, not a simple growth,

but a consistent process of the emergence of more and more new organs, which become more complicated in the future. Thus, Wolf was the first to put the study of the individual development of an organism (ontogenesis) on a scientific basis.

The role of Wolff in the development of biological science in the historical preparation of the evolutionary idea was highly appraised by Engels. “It is characteristic,” he wrote in Dialectics of Nature, “that almost simultaneously with Kant’s attack on the doctrine of the eternity of the solar system, K. CD. Wolf made in 1759 the first attack on the theory of the constancy of species, proclaiming the doctrine of evolution. 1859 by Darwin"

The idea of ​​the gradual development of wildlife in the second half of the 18th century was also put forward by the Russian naturalist Afanasy Kaverznev. In his work "On the Rebirth of Animals", published in 1775 in German and then in Russian, Kaverznev expressed a number of conjectures that anticipated some provisions of the theory of development in biology, in particular the position that the variability of animals is determined by the conditions of the external environment. Under the influence of environmental conditions and food, animal species undergo such profound changes over time that it is impossible to recognize them immediately.

The struggle of leading domestic doctors of the 18th century for the independent development of Russian medical science and the training of Russian doctors. In the XVIII century in Russia there was a struggle between leading domestic doctors for the independent development of Russian medical science and the training of Russian doctors. This struggle took place in various forms at various stages of the development of medicine in the 18th and 19th centuries. Both at the beginning of the 18th century with the creation of hospital schools and the recruitment of students for them at Bidloo, and at the end of the 18th century with the creation of higher medical education in St. educational institution, the so-called Kalinkin Institute, Russian youth had to fight for the right to study medicine.

By the middle of the 18th century, among the doctors who graduated from hospital schools and medical faculties of foreign universities, the most talented (M. Shein, S. Zybelin and others) fought for the right to be teachers in medical schools in Russia. For a whole century (from the middle of the 18th century until almost the middle of the 19th century) the struggle for the right to use the Russian language in medicine dragged on. There are numerous examples of the struggle for the opportunity for domestic doctors to occupy leadership positions in hospitals and educational institutions, in scientific and administrative institutions.

In 1764, the Medical College recognized the equality of the Russian and German languages ​​in teaching in hospital schools: "From now on, teaching in hospital schools will be public, in Russian and German." And only in 1795, in the “Preliminary Resolution on the Positions of Teachers, Students” it was indicated: “... A professor must know perfectly Russian for an accurate and intelligible expression of his thoughts on it when teaching teaching; in case of need, when it will be impossible to find one, a person who knows thoroughly Latin is allowed, in which he will be obliged to teach in 3 years (for 3 years), during which he must study the Russian language. As a result of this concession, many professors did not study Russian.

In the first half of the XIX century. For example, Moscow University In the first quarter of the 19th century, for the needs of students, he published translations of medical textbooks from German into Latin.

In 1764, the Medical College received the right to award doctors the degree of Doctor of Medicine, but in the 18th century it was awarded only to 16 doctors who were educated in hospital schools. In addition, the Medical College awarded the title of professor to 8 postgraduate scientists, as well as I. Bush and Ya Sapolovich, the title of professor without defending a dissertation and completing an adjuncture. The Faculty of Medicine of Moscow University received the right to award the degree of Doctor of Medicine only in the 90s of the 18th century. Finally, in 1859-1860. was allowed to defend dissertations in Russian.

A vivid example of the struggle was the events associated with the opening in St. Petersburg in the 80s of the 18th century of the Kalinkin Institute for the training of doctors, which did not last long and in the last years of the 18th century merged into the then created St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy. In 1783, foreign doctors who were at the head of medical affairs in Russia had the idea of ​​establishing in St. Petersburg (on the basis of the hospital near Kalinkin Bridge) a higher medical educational institution, a special school for the training of medical administrators and teachers. In the draft charter of this institution, it was frankly written: "When distributing places of service, the best places should be provided to pupils of this school." Having set such tasks for the new higher medical educational institution, its organizers, with the consent of the ruling circles of Russia, decided to make the Kalinkin Institute accessible exclusively to the Germans. The draft statute was supposed to forbid Russians to enter the number of students in this new school. Having learned about this project, M. M. Terekhovsky spoke out sharply against the attempt to create a higher medical school in St. Petersburg exclusively for the Germans and proposed making the Kalinkin Institute a purely Russian institution.

Under the influence of the protests that followed the speech of M. M. Terekhovsky, the government, when approving the charter of the Kalinkin Institute, was forced to remove the clause prohibiting Russians from enrolling among its students, but left another restriction, introducing the teaching of all subjects in the institute in German.

It is a mistake to think that this struggle with Vasily in the domestic medicine of foreign doctors was in the nature of personal competition. Without denying such elements in individual cases, we must at the same time emphasize that in general this struggle had deeper roots that played a role not only in medicine, but also in the entire culture and science of Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. In various phases and episodes of this stubborn struggle, which bore a class character, the struggle of the advanced materialistic ideas of the most prominent representatives of Russian natural science and social philosophical thought of the 18th century with reactionary, idealistic ideas, which were planted and supported in Russia mainly by representatives of foreign, mainly German science, was reflected.

The overwhelming majority of Russian scientists and doctors of the 18th century came from the working strata of the people, familiar with their situation and needs. They looked at science as a means of enlightening the masses, developing the productive forces and raising the well-being of the people. Foreigners, scientists and doctors who worked in Russia, mostly former supporters of reactionary theories, linked up with the leaders of the bureaucratic elite and were themselves often from among this elite, supported representatives of the noble-landlord class and reflected the interests of this class. Starting from the last decade of the 17th century, under Peter I and in the subsequent, 18th century, especially in its second half, the tsarist government invited a large number of foreign doctors from other countries and provided them with official and material advantages and privileges compared to domestic doctors. In the Medical College and other state institutions, the army, hospitals and hospitals, hospital schools, Moscow University, there were many foreign doctors who did not know and did not understand the needs of the Russian people.

Many foreign doctors, alien to advanced science in general and Russian in particular, pursuing almost exclusively selfish goals, hindered the development of advanced Russian scientific thought and, not disdaining any means, as much as they could, obstructed advanced Russian scientists. Foreign doctors, fearing competition, opposed in various ways the development of Russian medical science and the creation of a cadre of Russian doctors, teachers and scientists. Numerous examples of such an attitude towards talented Russian doctors are found in the biographies of K. I. Shchepin, S. G. Zybelin, D. S. Samoilovich, A. M. Shumlyansky and many other doctors of the 18th century.

Of course, among the foreigners who worked in Russia, there were people who honestly served the Russian people, understood their tasks, made Russia a permanent place of their activity and remained here until the end of their days (the father and sons of Blumentrosta, N. Bidloo, K. Wolf, P. Pallas, etc.).

Scientific activity of Russian doctors in the XVIII century. The 18th century was an important stage in the development of medicine in Russia. It was a period of formation and growth of Russian medical science, when scientific medicine appeared and rapidly developed in Russia. Among the doctors who contributed to the development of medical science, pupils of Russian hospital schools played a major role in the 18th century.

Domestic doctors were not only good practical doctors serving the civilian population and the army, but many of them became teachers. In the second half of the 18th century, many domestic doctors contributed to the development of medical science through their work.

Most dissertations was defended in foreign universities. During the 18th century, 309 Russian natives and foreigners naturalized in Russia received the degree of Doctor of Medicine in foreign universities. Of the doctoral dissertations defended in the 18th century by Russian doctors in foreign universities, the most interesting are 89 dissertations of pupils of Russian hospital schools, which was explained by the extensive theoretical and practical training received by their authors in hospital schools, thanks to which they deeply and comprehensively resolved issues, opposed idealistic views, applied experiment in their research, interpreted the issue from a materialistic points of view. Such were the dissertations of M. M. Terekhovsky, M. Shumlyansky, D. S. Samoilov and. A. F. Shafonsky, K. O. Yagelsky and others. These dissertations were repeatedly reviewed in the literature of that time and even completely re-published abroad.

Scientific research of Russian doctors of the 18th century was not limited to doctoral dissertations. Doctors carried out research work quite intensively, their numerous manuscripts were received by the Medical Office. In 1764, the Medical Board under P. 3. Kondoidi issued a special decree suggesting that all doctors send scientific papers for publication in the Russian Medical Commentaries. After that, the flow of papers increased, but the Medical College and its leaders, foreign doctors, being dishonest in their duties, did not look through the submitted scientific papers. By 1793, there were 463 handwritten essays by Russian doctors in the archives of the Medical College.

After the replenishment of the Medical College with advanced Russian doctors, the attitude changed. In 1793-1795. all the essays were reviewed at the conference of the college, divided by quality into 4 categories and 103 essays "were recognized as worthy of publication, but only in 1805 a collection containing 50 works was published. In the archive of the Medical College, more than a thousand manuscripts devoted to the problems of infectious diseases and epidemiology, surgery, internal medicine, hygiene, botany, pharmacology and chemistry have survived to this day. The authors of these manuscripts, for example, investigated anthrax, leprosy, studied the toxicology of ergot, established nutritional factors that affect the occurrence of scurvy.Among these manuscripts, there are a number of valuable works reflecting the following features: the desire to solve the most important issues of practical medicine (infectious diseases, hygiene, domestic medicinal raw materials) and the use of experimental research on nature.These works reflect the materialistic views of M.V. Lomonosov, his teaching about the need not only to treat, but also to prevent diseases, recognition of the value of experience.

The Russian medical literature of the 18th century is characterized by a large number of translated works. In 1757, M. I. Shein published the first translation of Geister's widely distributed textbook on anatomy, in 1761, a translation of Platner's textbook on surgery. M. I. Shein’s work on translating medical textbooks and books into Russian was continued by N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, M. M. Terekhovsky, F. I. Barsuk-Moiseev, and others. By the end of the 18th century, there were textbooks in Russian for all medical specialties. Acquaintance with translated medical literature printed in Russia in the 18th century shows that this “translated” period of Russian scientific medical literature was far from being a simple, much less slavish imitation. Russian doctors, acting as the first translators, clearly set themselves the task of being active in the critical perception of contemporary medical science in Western Europe. The independence and originality of the first Russian translators of the 18th century are visible in almost every significant translation work. The authors were critical of the original text, omitted what did not correspond to their views, made significant corrections, clarifications and comments to the translated text, often supplemented the text with their own material (data from their own observations, materials from other works). So, M. I. Shein included case histories from his own observations in the translation of a foreign book on surgery. N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, when translating a book on venereal (“passionate”) diseases, added 60 pages of his notes to 140 pages of the author's text.

In the last decades of the 18th century, large original works and textbooks were published in Russian in Russia. In 1792-1794. the first medical journal in Russian was published "St. Petersburg Medical Gazette"

When giving lectures and printing textbooks and scientific essays in Russian, great difficulties arose in medical terminology. The folk language could not convey many details of medical terminology, and in the 18th century translators and authors had to create medical terminology in Russian. A. P. Protasov, M. I. Shein, S. G. Zybelin worked hard in this respect. N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik paid much attention to the creation of medical terminology, not only in his writings and translations of medical books, but also when compiling special dictionaries. He published medical-surgical, anatomical-physiological and botanical dictionaries.

The main features of the scientific activity of domestic doctors of the 18th century were materialism with the resulting connection of medical research with experimental, natural sciences and interest in the nervous system, patriotism and democracy. In the development of Russian medicine in the 18th century, in the activities of a number of its leading representatives who ideologically followed M.V. Lomonosov, materialistic principles were formed in the fight against the influence of the idealistic reaction of the 18th century (Leibniz, Kant).

Russian naturalists and doctors of the XVIII centuries acted as consistent supporters of their contemporary materialistic views. We meet such statements by prominent doctors of the 18th century - S. G. Zybelin, N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, A. F. Shafonsky and others. glances.

The materialistic orientation of the advanced doctors contributed a lot to the progressive character of their medical activity.

The leading Russian doctors of the 18th century were characterized by the desire to introduce medicine into the circle of the natural sciences, to connect it with the achievements of natural science. The acquaintance of S. G. Zybelin, K. I. Shchepin, A. M. Shumlyansky, D. S. Samoylovich with physics, chemistry, and botany allowed them to extract everything advanced from modern natural science. F. G. Politkovsky wrote: "... I advise you to look at all systems with impartial eyes, which should be guided by reason and experience." N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik pointed out: “Speculation with experience - action is associated with a continuous alliance, so that one without the other is very weak and useless, and sometimes it can be harmful ... I don’t believe much in other people’s or my speculations, but for the most part I follow observations and experiments in nature.

Physicians-researchers heeded this advice and applied the experimental method extensively.

In 1775, M. M. Terekhovsky, while working on his dissertation "On pouring annmalikul", used a microscopic study. D. I. Ivanov in 1780, in his dissertation on the topic “On the origin of the intercostal nerves,” abandoned the views generally accepted at that time on the structure of the borderline sympathetic trunk, discarded speculative theories, engaged in the preparation of nerves, for the first time applied tissue maceration and proved the ascending direction of the cervical and head sections of the sympathetic nervous system. D. I. Pianov stood on strictly materialistic positions, did not recognize the mystical "nervous fluids" (as if flowing through the nerves). Russian doctors of the second half of the 18th century showed great attention to the nervous system as a leading link in the functional functions of the body.

Attention to the issues of hygiene and health of the population distinguished the leading figures of domestic medicine of the 18th century. The works, public lectures and speeches of S. G. Zybelin, N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, D. S. Samoylovich and others were devoted to hygienic topics. In these statements, intended not only for doctors, but also for a wide audience, questions were raised about the upbringing and protection of the health of children, the hygiene of the rural population, etc.

Outstanding figures of domestic medicine of the XVIII century. K. I. Shchepin. Konstantin Ivanovich Shchepin (1728-1770) was born in Kotelnich, studied at the Vyatka Theological Seminary, the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, then lived in Constantinople, Greece and Italy, and mastered perfectly Greek, Latin and several Western European languages.

Upon his return to Russia, Shchepin was a translator at the Academy of Sciences and worked on botany with Acad. S. P. Krasheninnikova. In 1753 Shchepin was sent to Leiden to study botany further. He intended to become a botanist, the successor to S.P. Krasheninnikov, but when he died, the place of the botanist was offered to the son-in-law of a prominent German. Apparently, as a result of these intrigues, K. I. Shchepin in 1756 transferred to the service of the Medical Office, which paid the expenses incurred by the Academy of Sciences for the business trip of K. I. Shchepin. M.V. Lomonosov wrote about this: "Sold Shchepin to the Medical Office." K. I. Shchepin began to study medicine. In 1758 he defended his doctoral dissertation in Leiden on vegetable acid. In this work, K. I. Shchepin analyzed the effect of plant acids in human food, indicated the preventive value of plant acids in the fight against scurvy, and anticipated some data of modern vitaminology. In the theses for the dissertation there are guesses about hormones, about the neuro-humoral regulation of the functions of the human body.

After that, K. I. Shchepin visited Paris and London. Copenhagen, visited Linnaeus in Sweden and everywhere improved in medicine. Returning to his homeland in 1759, he worked for a short time at the St. Petersburg General Hospital, from where, during the Seven Years' War, he voluntarily went to the army in order to get acquainted with the peculiarities of the work of a military doctor.

Since 1762, K. I. Shchepin taught anatomy, physiology, surgery, botany and pharmacology, being the first Russian teacher at the Moscow Hospital School. K. I. Shchepin was an opponent of dictation, adopted at that time by many teachers, which was caused by the lack of textbooks. He made sure that the students had textbooks. As a teacher, he sought to acquaint the audience with new achievements in medicine. An experienced linguist and translator, K. I. Shchepin taught in Russian.

He insisted on the need for visual and practical teaching; he taught anatomy with a demonstration of corpses (“on cadavers”). His notes on the methodology of teaching medical sciences have been preserved. With his innovations, K. I. Shchepin made enemies among the heads of hospital schools, was removed from teaching and even deprived of the right to practice medicine. He participated in botanical expeditions; took part in the fight against the plague, from which he died ...

Semyon Gerasimovich Zybelin (1735-1802) is deservedly considered the most outstanding Russian doctor of the 18th century.

S. G. Zybelin studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and from there in 1755 was sent as a student to the newly opened Moscow University. After graduating from the general faculty in 1759, Zybelin was sent to Leiden University, where in 1764 he graduated from the medical faculty and received a doctorate in medicine. From 1765 to 1802, S. G. Zybelin taught her for 35 years at the medical faculty of Moscow University, reading theoretical medicine, anatomy, surgery, ethical medicine and chemistry in different years. Since 1768, one of the first S. G. Zybe-i began to lecture in Russian.

In addition to teaching students, S. G. Zybelin repeatedly delivered solemn speeches at the annual acts of the university and devoted them to personal issues of medicine. These speeches by Zybelin (“Words” according to the terminology of the 18th century) were aimed at promoting medical information among various circles, after the utterance they were printed and made available. Zybelin's "Words" expressed advanced views for his time only on issues of practical medicine and hygiene, but also on broad philosophical issues.

The topics of S. G. Zybelin’s speeches are diverse: on the aphorisms of Hyipo-1ta, “On the effect of air on a person and on the ways in which it enters it”, the reasons for the internal union of parts among themselves”, “On the benefits of smallpox inoculation”, “On the harm arising from keeping oneself in warmth unnecessarily”, “On the additions of the human body and on ways to protect against diseases”, “On the correct upbringing from infancy in reason and the body, which serves for reproduction in the society of the people”, “On the methods: it is possible to warn, among other things, the reason for the slow growth of the people, which is indecent food for babies, borrowed in the first months of their life”, etc.

From the early period of his activity, S. G. Zybelin showed himself to be an advanced scientist, setting the task of resolving the most difficult questions related to the study of the world and man. According to S. G. Zybelin, science should learn not only the “external beauty” of the phenomena surrounding the ages, but their inner content, connections, objective over the years of existence.

S. G. Zybelin considered the study and knowledge of the laws of nature to be extremely important for the development of medicine, the prevention of diseases and the preservation of the health of the population. He recognized the objective nature of the laws of nature and encouraged listeners to follow and study them.

In his writings, he covered the main problems of medicine: the ethnology of diseases, heredity, the constitution and its significance for the health of children. Zybelin's views reflect the originality of his judgments, the anger of his thoughts, his broad outlook, and his commitment to progressive children.

In his natural historical materialism, in his persistent pronouncement of experience as the fundamental principle of science, S. G. Zybelin was a follower of M. V. Lomonosov. He well mastered the philosophical and scientific fortunes of the great scientist and in his works relied on his basic ideas about the essence of the phenomena of nature and man.

In 1768, S. G. Zybelin proposed to choose nature as the leader of the mind, and not its biased interpreters. Like M. V. Lomonosov, he believed that our knowledge should be based on observations and experience and their meaningful perception, and not prescribing nature of its own laws based on ideas abstracted from life.

At the same time, the works of S. G. Zybelin testify to the creative assimilation of the views of M. V. Lomonosov and their further development in medicine. In the “Word on the action of air in a person and the ways in which it enters”, S. G. Zybelin pointed out the material nature and unity of a person with the outside world, his subordination to the laws of nature. S. G. Zybelin ended his “Speech on the Cause of the Internal Union of Parts” with the following words: “We should not talk about things the way one or the other described them by the writer, but how nature produced them, and presents them to our eyes. It is desirable that everyone would be more in agreement with nature and would follow it everywhere, and not warn her with their vainglorious reasoning and, as if with an armed hand, prescribe their laws to her, but they themselves would obey and captivate the mind into her obedience, for inventions that are contrary to her mind will soon decay """ "Science suffers especially very much from those," he said, "who either adore antiquity of opinion, or old age of compositions Citing the example of Harvey, who boldly fought for the correctness of his views, S. G. Zybelin called on young people to be courageous in scientific research and to overcome ingrained false ideas.

Teaching theoretical medicine, S. G. Zybelin began with the physiology of a healthy person, physiological semiology and dietetics, then outlined pathology, pathological semiology and, finally, therapy. Zybelin taught medical substance and recipes with a demonstration of the preparation of the most important medicines: under his guidance, pharmacists showed students the preparation of medicines.

Recognizing the shortcomings of teaching medicine at Moscow University, S. G. Zybelin introduced demonstrations of patients during clinical lectures and demonstrations of experiments while reading

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For a state waging incessant wars, medical support for the army was of paramount importance. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. military hospitals were opened in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kronstadt, Revel, Kazan, Astrakhan, etc. As a result, during the life of Peter I, about 10 hospitals and over 500 infirmaries were created in the country.

Thus:

in the first quarter of the 18th century. real medical institutions with medical personnel appeared in Russia, and medical schools began to operate at four general hospitals.

In 1710, the first Hospital Regulation was issued to regulate the activities of hospitals, and a quarter of a century later, at the beginning of 1735, the drafted by archiatr I.B. Fischer "General Regulations on Hospitals", based on Russian experience, which determined the structure and staffing of hospitals, the duties of physicians, and also established that financially hospitals are under the jurisdiction of the military department, and in medical terms they are subordinate only to the Medical Office.

Provision of the country with medical personnel

During the reign of Peter I, the ranks of medical specialists were actively replenished by doctors invited from abroad. In 1695, 25, and in 1697 - 50 foreign doctors were discharged for military medical practice.

In total, more than 100 foreign doctors and pharmacists were recruited into the civil service during this period.

But the problem of providing medical personnel was extremely acute. Medical hospital schools have played a huge role in the training of medical personnel.

In total in the XVIII century. six hospital medical schools were opened (two St. Petersburg, two Moscow, Kronstadt, Kolyvano-Voskresenskaya and Elizavetgradskaya), which trained about 2000 doctors during this century.

Graduates of hospital schools of the XVIII century. were many outstanding doctors and scientists of Russia: Academician P.A. Zagorsky, professor N.M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, G.I. Bazilevich, F. Keresturi, E.O. Mukhin, Ya.O. Sapolovich, Doctor of Medicine A.G. Baherakht, N.K. Karpinsky, D.S. Samoilovich, G.F. Sobolevsky, member of the Medical College, director of the Medical and Surgical Academy S.S. Andreevsky and many others.

Without detracting from the merits of the medical faculty of Moscow University, it should be noted that from the time of its discovery (1758) until the end of the 18th century. they trained no more than 20 doctors.

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18th century medicine

For medicine in the 18th century. marked by improvements in medical education. New medical schools were founded: in Vienna, Edinburgh, Glasgow. Renowned physicians of the 18th century famous as teachers or as authors of works on the systematization of existing medical knowledge. Remarkable teachers in the field of clinical medicine were G. Boerhaave from Leiden and W. Cullen from Glasgow (1710-1790). Many of their students have taken pride of place in the history of medicine.

The most famous of Boerhaave's students, the Swiss A. von Haller (1708-1777), showed that muscle irritability does not depend on nerve stimulation, but is a property inherent in muscle tissue itself, while sensitivity is a specific property of nerves. Haller also developed the myogenic theory of heartbeats.

Padua was no longer a significant center of medical knowledge, but it brought up another great anatomist - Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771), the father of pathological anatomy. His famous book De sedibus et causis morborum per anatomen indagatis, 1761, De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per anatomen indagatis, 1761, is a masterpiece of observation and analysis. Based on over 700 examples, it integrates anatomy, pathological anatomy, and clinical medicine through careful matching of clinical symptoms with autopsy data. In addition, Morgagni introduced the concept of pathological changes in organs and tissues into the theory of diseases.

Another Italian, Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799), demonstrated the ability of gastric juice to digest food, and also experimentally refuted the then dominant theory of spontaneous generation.

Bloodletting, Francesco Baretta

In clinical medicine of this period, progress is noticeable in such an important area as obstetrics. Although forceps for obstetrics were invented in the 16th century. Peter Chamberlain (1560-1631), for more than a century they remained a secret of the Chamberlain family and were used only by them. Several types of tongs were invented in the 18th century and they became widely used; the number of male midwives was also on the rise. W. Smelly (1697-1763), an eminent English obstetrician, wrote a Treatise on Midwifery (1752), which accurately describes the process of childbirth and indicates rational procedures for facilitating them.

Despite the absence of anesthesia and antiseptics, surgery of the 18th century. moved far ahead. In England, W. Chizlden (1688-1752), the author of Osteography (Osteographia), performed an iridotomy - a dissection of the iris. He was also an experienced stone cutting (lithotomy) specialist. In France, J. Petit (1674-1750) invented the screw tourniquet and was the first to perform successful operations on the mastoid process of the temporal bone. P. Dezo (1744-1795) improved the treatment of fractures. Operative treatment of popliteal aneurysm, developed by the most remarkable surgeon of that era, John Hunter (1728-1793), became a classic of surgery. Also a talented and diligent biologist, Hunter did a variety of research in physiology and comparative anatomy.

This method itself, however, is not yet sufficiently established to put a stop to arbitrary theorizing. Any theory, since it lacked a truly scientific justification, was opposed by another, just as arbitrary and abstract. Such was the dispute between materialists and vitalists at the beginning of the 18th century. The problem of treatment was also solved purely theoretically.

Autopsy in the Anatomical Theatre, William Hogarth

The 18th century is generally regarded as the century of enlightenment, rationalism, and the rise of science. But this is also the golden age of quackery, quackery and superstition, an abundance of secret miraculous potions, pills and powders. Franz A. Mesmer (1734-1815) demonstrated his "animal magnetism" (a harbinger of hypnotism), causing an extreme passion for him in secular society. Phrenology was then considered a serious science. Unprincipled charlatans made fortunes on the so-called. "temples of healing", "heavenly lodges", various miraculous "electrical" devices.

Despite its misconceptions, the 18th century came close to one of the most important medical discoveries - vaccination. For centuries, smallpox has been the scourge of mankind; unlike other epidemic diseases, it did not disappear and remained as dangerous as before. Only in the 18th century it claimed more than 60 million lives.

Artificial weak smallpox infection has already been used in the East, especially in China and Turkey. In China, it was carried out by inhalation. In Turkey, a small amount of fluid from a smallpox vesicle was injected into a superficial incision in the skin, which usually led to mild disease and subsequent immunity. This type of artificial infection was introduced in England already in 1717, and this practice became widespread, but the results were not always reliable, sometimes the disease proceeded in a severe form. Moreover, it did not allow to get rid of the disease itself.

"Thorn on a Rose"

Syphilis flooded Europe in a giant wave. “A thorn in the rose,” the fatalists quipped, when cruel reality hammered into their heads the thought that either-or does not exist here!

The main breeding ground for syphilis - and, of course, other venereal diseases - was a public prostitute. Every intercourse was then tantamount to an almost inevitable venereal disease. A Berlin doctor, Dr. P. Meisner, recently investigated Casanova's life from this side and concluded that "Casanova fell ill every time he dealt with prostitutes."

Müller says in his “Gemalde von Berlin…”: “The lower classes are completely infected, two-thirds (an eminent physician told me) are sick with venereal diseases or exhibit symptoms of venereal diseases. In Koblenz, after the invasion of emigrants, when "free medical care was offered, seven hundred were infected."

However, the ruling classes suffered no less from this scourge. On the contrary, here whole families were infected with this disease even more than in the bourgeoisie, since under the dominance of the above-described freedom of morals, the “gallant gift” received from a prostitute or ballerina was very easily transmitted to a secular lady, and above all to a maitre, which usually did not limit the cycle of infections. Satans Harvest Home says:
“Husbands transmit syphilis to their wives, wives to husbands, even children, the latter to nurses, and those in turn to their children.”

Hercules and Omphale, Francois Boucher

Many lechers, whose love noble ladies disputed with each other, positively carried this disease to all houses. Most of the ruling families were then infected with syphilis. Almost all Bourbons and Orleanists (representatives of the royal dynasty. - Ed.) Suffered either temporarily or permanently from this and other venereal diseases. And the same must be said about the entire French court nobility.

In Paris, as Capon, and after him Hervé, proved, most of the ballerinas and actresses were syphilitic. Since it was from these circles that the French nobility mainly took their mistresses, the disease was inevitable for the majority. The famous dancer Camargo and the no less famous Guimard left almost all their admirers, among them several princes and dukes, such a memory of their favor. Duchess Elizabeth Charlotte, who, however, was herself infected by her husband, writes:
"The ballerina Deschamps presented Prince Friedrich Karl of Württemberg with a gift from which he died."

The mercy shown by the sovereign to the wives of the courtiers soon passed into their blood, and then into the blood of their children. The Duke of Württemberg, Karl Alexander, probably infected by a ballerina, then in turn infected his entire harem, which consisted of dancers from the Stuttgart court theater and was known as the "blue shoes", for the right to wear blue shoes distinguished all the duke's favorites.

When they saw at the top of society that almost all of Cupid's arrows left poisoned wounds behind them and that no one leaves the battlefield of Venus without being marked with a similar sign sooner or later, cruel self-mocking was added to this terrible disease. The disease was idealized.
Eduard Fuchs, "History of Morals"

Opium preparations in Western Europe in the 17th-18th centuries

In the 17th century, the Spaniards, trading in the Philippines and South China, imported tobacco to these countries. At the same time, the Dutch introduced the custom of adding opium to tobacco. The Dutch considered it a sure way to fight malaria, while the Chinese understood it as a way of intoxication. From smoking tobacco with opium to smoking pure opium there was one step: the custom of smoking opium took root. Opio-smoking developed in the country, which took on a disastrous character. In 1729, by an edict of Emperor Yung Chang, and in 1800 by Emperor Kia Kong, the sale of opium for smoking and the maintenance of smoking rooms in China are prohibited. Regardless of the laws, England and Holland, in pursuit of profit, continue to smuggle huge quantities of opium into China. At the end of the 18th century, the entire opium trade was monopolized by the East India Company.

In those years when the non-medical use of opium - opiophagy and opiosmoking - was already considered the scourge of the countries of the East, the danger of opiates in Europe was not yet recognized. Cases of abuse of opium drugs were, of course, in the countries of Western Europe, but "... the disorders that arose in this case were not causally associated with the action of opium, but were regarded as constitutional features, usually degeneration" (I. N. Pyatnitskaya, 1975).

For centuries from the time of Galen until the end of the 19th century, opium was used as a non-specific therapeutic agent in the form of galenical preparations for many diseases, including mental ones. It is necessary to dwell on several official opium prescriptions, very popular and passed down from generation to generation.

Their composition is described in detail in the works of Wootton (1910) and Mast (1915).

Theriac. It was compiled by Andromachus, physician to Emperor Nero. It was prepared with wine and honey in the form of a thin paste, the composition is given in the works of Galen. Galen's recommendations remained valid in relation to this opium drug until the 18th century. Cities such as Constantinople, Cairo, Genoa, Venice competed for priority in theriac production during the Middle Ages. In the 18th century, the Venetian theriac, or “trickle” in the jargon, eclipsed all other similar preparations in popularity. Interestingly, the Turks have a slang word "theriacides", expressing a contemptuous attitude towards persons who do not smoke opium, but eat it (Brockhaus, Efron, 1897). A reference to theriac can be found in the London Pharmacopoeia, 1745 edition.

Philonium. According to the assumption of Pliny the Elder, expressed in his Natural History, the author of the prescription for this drug was Philo of Tarsus, who lived at the beginning of the 1st century AD. e. This remedy was recommended for intestinal colic, dysentery, the epidemic of which was in Rome in the time of Philo. In the English pharmacopoeia, phylonium remained until 1867. Its prescription included the following components: white pepper, ginger, caraway seeds, refined opium (in the amount of 1 grain per 36 grains of the drug mass) and poppy seed syrup.

Dioscoridium. Later opium prescription. It was compiled by Hieronymus Frascatorius, the famous physician and poet of Verona at the beginning of the 16th century. In addition to opium, it included cinnamon, cassia fruits, white ash, gum arabic, white pepper, Armenian clay, and gum. In the 18th century, when the use of opiates became so popular that it took the form of "family remedies," dioscoridium was often prescribed to infants as an effective sedative.

Apothecary, Pietro Longhi

Later pharmacopoeial opium prescriptions are associated with the name of Paracelsus (1490-1541). The views and activities of Paracelsus reflected the spirit of the early Renaissance - the time of a sharp change in ideas in all areas of public life, science, and culture. Speaking against blind obedience to the authorities of the ancients, Paracelsus put forward experience as the basis of knowledge. In medicine, Paracelsus was famous for his doctrine of dosage. "Everything is poison, and nothing is devoid of poison, only the dose makes poison a medicine." They were offered several dosage forms of opium under the name "laudanum": pills "Paracelsian laudanum", which consisted of a quarter of opium; "Anodynum Paracelsus" (from anodydon - Greek "painkiller") - a preparation containing, in addition to purified opium, orange or lemon juice, frog sperm, cinnamon, clove seeds, fossilized resin, saffron.

"Sydenham's Laudanum" appears to be a derivative of the liquid "Paracelsus's Laudanum" and is associated with the name of a famous 17th-century English physician, in whose work his prescription for dysentery was given.

At the end of the 18th century, another opium preparation, known as " laudanum rosso”, named after the Capuchin monk Rousseau, court physician to King Louis XVI. Unlike previous recipes, Rosso's laudanum contained a fermentative.

Etymologically, the word "laudanum" probably comes from the Latin "Iaudandum" - something to be praised. Philologists believe that the meaning of the word is rather close to the name of gum chewing gum, from which a gastric remedy was prepared in the middle of the century: "Iabdanum" or "Iadanum". Mast, on the other hand, believes that this word rather comes from the abbreviation (abbreviation) of the two words "Iaudatum opium" - beautiful opium.

If we follow the chronology of the appearance of opium drugs in the pharmacopoeias of Western countries, then the next opium drug, according to Wootton (1910), were "black drops" that appeared in the 18th century. Their other name is known - "Lancaster" or "Quaker" drops. In terms of opium activity, such drops were 3 times superior to laudanum.

The "family" opium remedy at the beginning of the 18th century was paregoric. Its recipe was created by the famous professor of Leiden University La Mothe. In the "London Pharmacopoeia" of 1886, on the basis of the paregoric, a prescription for opium camphor tincture was proposed, in the "German Pharmacopoeia" - opium benzoic tincture. The word "paregoric" is also of Greek etymology and means "soothing", "comforting". The list of opium prescriptions of the 17th-18th centuries would be incomplete without the "dover powder", which was proposed in 1762 by the doctor Thomas Dauer.

Laudanum, paregoric, dover powder have retained their significance to this day and are mentioned in modern pharmacopoeias of Western Europe and the USA.

A large number of opium preparations in the pharmacopoeias of the 16th-18th centuries, each of which was recommended for the most diverse diseases in terms of etiology, was nothing more than a search for the quintessence, the elixir of life. Opium preparations were recommended for infectious diseases (smallpox, tuberculosis, cholera, dysentery, syphilis, whooping cough), as well as dropsy, gout, headache, palpitations, miscarriages, hepatic and renal colic, cough. The usual route of administration was oral; opium suppositories, rubbing, ointments, etc. were also common.
T. I. Ulyankina, “History of opium drugs and the problem of drug addiction”

History of Medicine Pavel Efimovich Zabludovsky

Chapter 8 Medicine in Russia in the era of feudalism (XVIII century)

At the beginning of the 18th century, in the interests of the ruling classes, Peter I carried out a series of major transformations that accelerated the economic development of the country: boards were established instead of orders, and a regular army and navy were created. During this period, there was an acute shortage of medical personnel, so the reorganization of medical affairs in the country was carried out.

In 1706, a decree was issued on the opening of free pharmacies.

In 1707, the solemn opening of the first permanent military hospital and the hospital school attached to it took place in Moscow. Similar institutions were organized in St. Petersburg - land (1718) and sea (1719) hospitals, in Kronstadt - a sea hospital (1720), etc. (Fig. 15).

In 1719, instead of the Apothecary Order, the Medical Office was established, and in 1763 this institution was transformed into the Medical College with broader rights and powers.

In the XVIII century. by the decision of the Medical Board, the degree of Doctor of Medicine was awarded to 16, and the title of professor to 8 Russian doctors. In total, over a century in Russia and abroad, the degree of Doctor of Medicine was awarded to 89 Russian and 309 foreign doctors.

The most important state reform was the opening in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

In the future, the Academy of Sciences had a huge impact on the development of medical science in Russia. According to the regulations, the Academy was declared not only a scientific, but also an educational institution.

In 1775, Orders of public charity were formed to manage medical institutions, and the position of a county doctor was established. In 1797, provincial medical councils were created. As an exception, medical offices operated in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and they were managed by the chief doctors of the city.

In other large cities, the medical service was led by a city doctor. By the end of the 18th century, there were 878 doctors in the civil service. Publishing activity has noticeably revived. In the printing house of N. I. Novikov, from 1779 to 1792, 21 medical books were printed. The university printing house also continued to print medical papers.

Rice. 15. The building of the Moscow military hospital»

In 1803, the College of Medicine was closed, and its functions were transferred to the Ministry of the Interior (Medical Department). Under the same Ministry, the Medical Council was established - the highest scientific medical institution. He was supposed to give opinions on scientific works and medical diplomas of foreign universities, compose a pharmacopoeia, etc.

In the XVIII century, the training of medical personnel was carried out at hospital schools. The basis of the 5-10-year training of doctors was the program used in the Moscow Hospital School. The main subjects were: anatomy; "matter medica", surgery with desmurgy and internal diseases. According to the regulations, the autopsy became mandatory.

Since 1754, according to the new curriculum, the training period for doctors was 5-7 years. In the first years they studied: anatomy, pharmacy, drawing, in the third and fourth - physiology and pathology, in the fifth and sixth - physiology, pathology, operative surgery and surgical practice, in the seventh - medical practice in therapy. Students of hospital schools worked in the anatomical theater, pharmacy gardens, studied patients directly in hospital wards. The duty of hospital physicians included: compiling "mournful sheets" (case histories), writing down signs of illness in a diary, treating the sick and teaching this art to students.

Pavel Zakharovich Kondoidi introduced important innovations into the system of training future doctors. On his initiative, clinical wards were allocated in hospitals, a medical library was organized, a mandatory autopsy was introduced, and a more stringent examination for the title of doctor was established. This system of training doctors in Russia has existed for more than 50 years.

In 1786, hospital schools were reorganized into medical and surgical schools, and in 1798 - into the Medical and Surgical Academy (in St. Petersburg). In Moscow, the Medical-Surgical School became a department of the Medical-Surgical Academy.

On the initiative of the brilliant Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, on May 7, 1755, the first university was opened in Moscow, consisting of three faculties: philosophy, law and medicine.

The Faculty of Medicine began practical activities only in the 1764/65 academic year. According to the staff of that time, the faculty was supposed to have 3 professors: chemistry, natural history and anatomy. In the first year of the university's work, only 16 students studied medicine. All classes were held in the building of a former pharmacy near Red Square. In connection with the expansion of the university and the emergency state of the old building (1775), it was decided to build a new one. According to the project of the architect M.F. Kazakov, the construction of a new university building (Mokhovaya Street) was started in 1783 and completed in 1793.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Famous scientists taught at the Medical Faculty: Semyon Gerasimovich Zybelin (since 1765), Ivan Andreevich Sibirsky (since 1770), Ignaty Iosifovich Vech (1776), Mikhail Ivanovich Skiadan (1776), Franz Frantsevich Keresturi (1777) and others. When initiating students (after the first year), they were supposed to wear a special uniform - "a green uniform with white metal buttons, a triangular hat and a sword."

In 1791, the Moscow University was allowed to award after the public defense of the dissertation a scientific degree - the “degree” of a doctor. After defending his dissertation “On Breathing” in 1794, F. I. Barsuk-Moiseev, a pupil of the Medical Faculty, was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine for the first time.

At the beginning of the 19th century, university education expanded in Russia. Universities were opened in Kazan, Dorpat, Vilna, Kharkov. At each university, medical faculties were created, which played an important role in the training of medical personnel.

M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765).

It is necessary to determine the role of MV Lomonosov in the development of medicine. M. V. Lomonosov showed great interest in the problems of preserving the health of his people, in medicine. He considered medicine to be a science, "the most useful for the human race, which through the knowledge of the properties of the body ... reaches the cause." Curious is his letter to Count Shuvalov "On the reproduction and preservation of the Russian people" (1761). Here are the main thoughts contained in this letter: to open medical institutions "of which there are still few" and to treat patients according to the rules of medical science; “a (large) number of doctors, doctors, pharmacies is required in all cities ... which is not even a hundredth part”; Give Russian universities the right to "produce worthy doctors"; "compose a medical book" in Russian for the people. Here, M. V. Lomonosov expressed concern about the high mortality and morbidity in Russia.

Speaking in 1751 with an act speech “On the Benefits of Chemistry”, he said: “How can we talk about the human body, not knowing either the addition of bones and compositions to strengthen it, or the union, or the position of the muscles for movement, or the stretching of the nerves for feeling, or the location of the viscera for the preparation of nutritious juices, or the extension of the veins for the circulation of blood, or other organs of its wonderful structure ". Physicians are absolutely definitely faced with the task of moving on to the study of the structure of man, to experimental knowledge. This idea of ​​M. V. Lomonosov was further developed in the works of his students. MV Lomonosov was interested in some questions of physiology: the ways of transmission of nervous excitation, the circulatory system, and the functions of the sense organs. M. V. Lomonosov observed the influence of smell on the sense of smell and its combination with taste. In a number of works by M. V. Lomonosov there are statements about the causes of human diseases, which, in his opinion, nest in the external environment, in poor-quality food, and climate fluctuations.

M. V. Lomonosov armed his contemporaries and followers in natural science and medicine with the method of understanding nature. This is the main merit of the scientist. He believed that empirical knowledge is as important as theoretical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge, in his opinion, is born from "repeated experiences". It was these ideas that his students and followers in medicine sought to put into practice not only in the 18th century, but also in the future.

In the middle of the XVIII century. scientific medicine was born in Russia. Its origins were the students and followers of M. V. Lomonosov, the largest medical scientists of that era S. G. Zybelin, D. S. Samoilovich, A. P. Protasov, N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, A. M. Shumlyansky and others.

For domestic medicine of the same period, the originality of scientific research, materialistic orientation, patriotism, and the struggle against foreign domination are characteristic. The main problems that scientists and doctors solved were: the protection of the health of the people, the study of the essence of the disease, the unity and integrity of the body, the fight against infectious diseases.

S. G. Zybelin repeatedly delivered speeches in which he gave clear and precise hygiene advice, outlined the rules of a healthy life, and promoted the idea of ​​hardening the body. Of particular interest is his act speech "On the correct education from infancy in the reasoning of the body, serving for reproduction in the society of the people."

Another student of M. V. Lomonosov, P. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, for the first time in Russian, wrote a great work “The Art of Wiping, or the Science of Womanhood” (1784), which became a reference book for obstetricians in Russia. He believed that children should be hardened, more often taken out into the fresh air, and he preferred breastfeeding.

X. Peken’s “Home Medical Book”, translated into Russian by A.P. Protasov, was very popular among the people.

To solve some issues of preserving the health of the people, K. I. Shchepin wrote his doctoral dissertation “On Vegetable Acid” (1758). Far from his homeland, within the walls of Leiden University, a Russian young man worked in laboratories. He was looking for an answer to the question why a serf, exhausted by forced labor, eating bread, cabbage soup and kvass, is healthy and almost never gets sick. Investigating these products, K. I. Shchepin found that they contain organic acids, which are so necessary for human health.

In feudal-feudal Russia, the people did not know the causes of diseases, they did not know how to apply preventive measures. That is why some scholars published pamphlets exclusively for the people. This is the work of D. S. Samoilovich “The current method of treatment with instruction on how ordinary people can be treated for the remorse of a rabid dog and for the ulceration of a snake ...” (1780), S. S. Andrievsky “A brief description of anthrax, containing protective and healing agents, in favor of the common people” (1796), etc. S. G. Zybelin believed that the time would come when “many diseases ... will disappear and natural Russian properties, strength, strength, courage and courage will come in their place ... "

The problem of the essence of the disease has undergone a certain evolution over the centuries. In the XVIII century. Russian scientists embarked on the path of a materialistic understanding of the doctrine of the disease. S. G. Zybelin, and then M. Ya. Mudrov saw the manifestation of the disease in anatomical changes in organ tissues. I. E. Dyadkovsky, G. I. Sokolsky believed that one external manifestation of the disease (symptom) does not give a complete picture of it. There was an assumption about functional changes in the body.

N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik (1744-1812).

In the second half of the XVIII century. S. G. Zybelin in his works laid the foundation for the doctrine of the essence of the disease.

To understand the origins of the disease, said S. G. Zybelin, it is necessary to study external influences on the human body. A person should know what is good for him and what is bad. The scientist believed that it was better to fight diseases not with medicines, but with useful work and the right way of life.

In the second half of the XVIII century. D.S. Samoilovich completed the development of the doctrine of the plague. He sought to recognize the essence of this disease by opening the corpses of the dead, looking for the cause of the disease, gave a classic description of the clinical picture and pointed out that this disease is transmitted only through "touch".

Doctors of the Kolyvano-Voznesensk plants (Siberia) N. Nozhevshchikov and A. Eshke gave a brief description of the clinical picture of anthrax (1768). The original study of this disease was carried out by S. S. Andrievsky (1789). In order to prove the identity of the anthrax disease in humans and animals, he conducted an experiment on himself. The result of his successful work was the popular brochure "A Brief Description of Anthrax, Containing Precautions and Curatives, for the Benefit of the Common People..." (1796).

M. V. Lomonosov, creating the doctrine of the atomistic structure of matter, laid the foundation for the materialistic doctrine of the unity and integrity of the organism. His student S. G. Zybelin also said a new word on this problem. In his work “A word on the cause of the internal union of parts of the body between themselves and the fortress arising from that in the human body” (1768), he criticizes the idealistic “glue theory of Haller and supports the idea of ​​mutual attraction of particles”. In another work by S. G. Zybelin, “A word about the additions of the human body and about the ways in which they are protected from diseases,” the problem of the unity of the organism was further developed. The division of all people into 4 types of physique and temperament made by him confirms his materialistic conviction and commitment to the idea of ​​the unity of the organism. From the standpoint of the unity of the process of development of an organism, one should also consider the famous "Theory of Origin" (1759) by Academician Kaspar Wolf. Very original is the statement of NM Maksimovich-Ambodik about the principle of unity in other areas as well. He believed that "speculation with experience - action is associated with a continuous union ..." A. N. Radishchev in his work "On Man, His Mortality and Immortality" (1792) defended the principle of the unity of the organism (monism) and criticized the supporters of dualism.

The problem of combating infectious diseases was one of the most important in Russia during the 18th century. During the century, 9 plague epidemics were noted. Smallpox, anthrax and other contagious diseases were fought.

National measures aimed at preventing and eliminating epidemics include: 1) the organization of quarantines and "quarantine outposts" in places where the epidemic appeared (1755); 2) approval by the Senate of the "Quarantine Charter" (1800); 3) the opening of "smallpox houses" in Moscow (1768) and St. Petersburg (1772) and the allocation of the post of "smallpox doctor"; 4) establishment of the post of "border doctor" (1743); 5) opening of "small infirmaries" on ships; 6) organization of disinfection of things (1771); 7) the introduction of vaccination according to Jenner (1801); 8) approval by the Medical College of the "Instructions on the inoculation of protective smallpox" (1803), etc.

The organizer of the fight against the plague was D.S. Samoylovich. In the event of an epidemic, quarantines were established, rooms were fumigated, things were disinfected, and corpses were buried outside the city. In addition, during the period of the plague, it was recommended to wash the body with cold water or vinegar, to take liquid tar for both sick and healthy (1727). In Astrakhan, during the plague (1728), the governor ordered the inhabitants of the city to go to the steppe and camp in tents.

During the plague epidemic in Ukraine (1738), “guards were posted around cities and villages and gallows were arranged for those who fled from the infected area.”

The outstanding epidemiologist D.S. Samoylovich, a participant in the liquidation of 9 plague epidemics in 1784, wrote that the plague is “a sticky disease, but conveniently curbed and suppressed. You cannot get infected from contact if you immediately wash your hands with vinegar or kvass, or water with salt, or clean water. He suggested that medical personnel be vaccinated against the plague by placing gauze soaked in pus from a mature bubo for several days on the forearm.

D. S. Samoilovich (1746-1805).

D.S. Samoilovich was the first to express the conviction that although the plague is a dangerous disease, it is possible to recover from it. Thus, he inspired millions of people with the hope of salvation during epidemics.

The first description of the signs of anthrax in Russia belongs to the doctors A. Eshke and N. Nozhevshchikov. The clinical picture of this disease in humans and animals was described in detail by S. S. Andrievsky. He proposed various means of treating this disease. First of all, he recommended that sour rye dough mixed with chalk be applied to the tumor Zraza a day until it softens, and then wipe this place with cold water with ice and vinegar. Other symptomatic treatments offered were flaxseed poultices, complex ointments, laxatives. S. S. Andrievsky proposed other measures: to refrain from selling livestock and eating meat and dairy products during an epidemic, to separate healthy animals from sick ones, to bury dead animals deep into the ground. As can be seen from the above, all measures were clearly insufficient to save people from such a dangerous disease.

In the XVIII century. scurvy was known as one of the common diseases among soldiers. To prevent this disease, a folk elixir was used - "infusion on the wine of spruce and pine tops." 8 essays were sent to the medical board on the topic of how to protect soldiers from scurvy.

During his visit to Siberia, PS Palace visited the mines of Nizhny Tagil. He noticed that hired workers from the peasants of the Cherdynsky district suffer from scurvy in the winter from a lack of "fresh food."

A. Bacherakht in his work "Practical discourse on scurvy disease" (1786) described ways to treat and prevent scurvy. His experience in treating patients with “Russian infusion” (a drink made from young pine shoots), cranberry juice, cabbage, and garlic made it possible to cure 2/3 of the patients in the hospital in a short time. He was convinced that the main preventive remedy for scurvy was the right way of life.

Smallpox is one of the oldest diseases. Only in the XVIII century in Russia, the incidence of smallpox was 400,000 people. To combat this disease, physicians began to use the method of variolation.

The first scientist who led the fight against smallpox was S. G. Zybelin. He wrote a special pamphlet "A word on the benefits of grafting smallpox" (1768), which outlines the signs of the disease, its stages and the method of variolation. Soon "smallpox houses" were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where they began to produce vaccinations against smallpox. In the same years, the Medical College sent doctors to other cities to carry out smallpox vaccination. In total, from 1756 to 1780, 20,090 inoculations against smallpox were made in Russia.

A great help to doctors was provided by A. Bacherakht's brochure "Description and instruction on inoculation of smallpox" (1769).

At the end of the 18th century, the vaccination method developed by E. Jenner became known in Russia. Soon this preventive method began to be applied in our country. According to the method of Gener, E. O. Mukhin began to vaccinate children. In 1803, the “Instruction on the inoculation of protective smallpox” was published, which was extremely necessary for doctors.

From the book Surgery of hernias of the abdominal wall author Nikolai Valerianovich Voskresensky

Chapter XVIII Hernias of the urinary bladder To the hernial sacs of the inguinal and femoral hernias, the urinary bladder may adjoin or protrude into the cavity of the hernial sac, making up, as it were, its contents. According to V. R. Braitsev, bladder hernias occur in 0.5-6.3%, according to R. S.

From the book Skin and Venereal Diseases author Oleg Leonidovich Ivanov

Chapter XVIII SKIN ANGIITIS Angiitis of the skin (syn. vasculitis of the skin) is a dermatosis, in the clinical and pathomorphological symptoms of which the initial and leading link is nonspecific inflammation of the walls of the dermal and hypodermal blood vessels of various

From the book History of Medicine: Lecture Notes author E. V. Bachilo

LECTURE No. 5. Medicine in Russia in the 15th–17th centuries 1. General characteristics of the historical period. Necessary concepts From the middle of the XII to the end of the XV centuries. there was a period of feudal fragmentation in the country. Reasons for feudal fragmentation: 1) the development of feudal agriculture, as well as

author E. V. Bachilo

LECTURE No. 6. Medicine in the Russian Empire in the 18th century 1. General characteristics of the historical period of the 18th century. begins the war, which was called the Northern War. It lasted from 1700 to 1721. At this time, Peter I ruled in Russia. It must be recalled that Peter ascended the throne

From the book Brain Languages. Experimental paradoxes and principles of neuropsychology by Karl Pribram

2. The main features of the economy and culture of Russia in the XVIII century It must be said that in the XVIII century. the development of feudal society in Russia entered a new stage. This stage implied the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the growth of commodity production, as well as

From the book Thanatology - the science of death author Sergei Valentinovich Ryazantsev

25 The main features of the economy and culture of Russia in the XVIII century I must say that in the XVIII century. the development of feudal society in Russia entered a new stage. This stage implied the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the growth of commodity production, as well as

From the book Desired Child by Tony Weshler

CHAPTER XVIII SYMBOLS INVOLVING SIGNS Symbols are stimuli to action. They acquire meaning on the basis of their use in the past and the state of the organism using them in the present. This is how they differ from signs. Symbols as symbols depend on the context in which they are

From the book History of Medicine author Pavel Efimovich Zabludovsky

From the book Perfect Vision Without Glasses author William Horatio Bates

Chapter eight. Method for determining the possibility of pregnancy in the age of AIDS

From the author's book

Medicine in the epoch of feudalism

From the author's book

Chapter 4 Medicine of the era of early and developed feudalism (5th-15th centuries) Feudalism replaced the slave system, and in countries where there was no established slavery, it was primitive communal: in China in the 3rd century BC. e., in Transcaucasia - in the 4th century AD. e., in the Western Roman Empire - in the 5th century AD.

From the author's book

Chapter 9 Medicine in Russia during the Decay of Feudalism (First Half of the 19th Century) For Russia in the First Half of the 19th Century characterized by the further development of capitalist relations and the disintegration of the feudal system. International trade expanded. Russian agricultural

From the author's book

Chapter 10 Medicine of the manufacturing stage of capitalism (mid-17th - second half of the 18th century) The last stage of feudalism was characterized by the gradual maturation of capitalist relations in its depths. Already at the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. in some parts of the Mediterranean

From the author's book

Chapter 11 Medicine in the period of industrial capitalism (late 18th - second half of the 19th century) The industrial revolution in England and the French Revolution, which finally established capitalism in rights as a socio-economic system in general historical terms, not only

From the author's book

Chapter 12 Medicine in Russia in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Mid 19th century in Russia was marked by a significant turning point in public life - the transition, although much belated, from feudal-serf relations to bourgeois-capitalist, which historically

From the author's book

Chapter XVIII. Optima and Pessimum In virtually all cases of imperfect vision caused by refractive errors, there is some object or objects that a person can see with normal vision. I called such objects "optimums". On the other hand, there are those