The only companion. The Moon is the Earth's satellite
The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth. And the only extraterrestrial body visited by humans was just 12 people aboard the six Apollo missions. This happened between July 1969 and December 1972. Also, the Moon has been and is the target of numerous robotic probes.
Earth's satellite - Moon
As a result of the work of Apollo and the USSR lunar programs, 382 kg were delivered to Earth. lunar rock. In addition, several lunar meteorites have been found. Most of these samples are between 4.6 and 3 billion years old. But there is one exception - a lunar meteorite, whose age is estimated at 2.8 billion years. All of them contain valuable information about early history solar system. These traces are difficult to find on Earth due to tectonic activity. As well as the presence of a strong atmosphere in the last 3.8 billion years.
The Moon is unusually large compared to the size of its “owner” (in this regard, only Charon has primacy). The thickness of its crust is on average 68 kilometers. It is thinner on the side closest to Earth, and has almost zero thickness under the Mare Crisium (Sea of Crisis). Below the crust there is a mantle and probably a small core. It has a radius of about 340 kilometers and contains about 2% of the Moon's mass.
The Moon's center of mass is shifted from the geometric center by about 2 kilometers towards the Earth.
How big is the Moon compared to the Earth?
The diameter of the Moon is 3,474 kilometers, and that of the Earth is 12,800 kilometers. This means that the Earth has a diameter 3.68 times greater than that of the Moon. The Earth's surface area is about 13 times larger than the Moon (which has approximately the surface area of Africa). Approximately 50 moons can fit inside the Earth. The mass of the Moon is 81 times less than that of the Earth.
Origin of the Moon and its early history
The origin of the Moon remains a matter of debate. Until recently, the widely held belief was that it formed more than 4.5 billion years ago. Construction material became fragments that appeared when the Earth collided with a body with dimensions close to the size of This hypothetical object, scientists call Theia.
In 2012, this theory was challenged by computer calculations that showed the impact must have involved a much larger, faster-moving object. Only a larger object could cause such a blow to the Earth that it would separate part of our planet, which subsequently formed the Moon from molten debris. In this scenario, the impact exerted by the impacting object on the Moon's material is very small, which explains interesting fact– Some isotopic ratios (particularly oxygen and titanium) in the lunar surface material are almost identical to those found in terrestrial rocks.
Lunar seas
The outer layers of the Moon, originally molten and containing a global "ocean of magma", cooled to form rocks over the course of 4.5 billion years. Their traces can now be seen in the lunar highlands. These ancient igneous rocks, known as anorthosites, are rich in the silicate mineral plagioclase. They are what give the lunar highlands their characteristic light color.
After the formation of the Moon, there followed an intense bombardment of its surface by meteorites. It caused extensive destruction and fragmentation of the crust. About 4 billion years ago, the Moon experienced a series of cataclysms that formed basins called seas. Subsequent volcanic activity, occurring approximately 4 to 2.5 billion years ago, flooded these basins with molten lava. Over time, it cooled and hardened to form dark basalt. Since that time, the Moon has changed little, except for occasional impacts on its surface by meteorites or comets.
Geological activity on the Moon
The moon has some geological activity. Instruments left on the lunar surface by the Apollo astronauts recorded small seismic events. These are known as "moonquakes". They occur at depths of several hundred kilometers. Perhaps they are caused by tidal stresses arising from the gravitational pull of the Earth. In addition, there have been many reports of processes called transient lunar phenomena. The most unusual of these was observed by Ken Mattingly, the command module pilot of Apollo 16, who reported the appearance of flashes of light on the far side of the Moon.
The mass concentrations, or mascons, associated with the seas are caused by the presence of layers of dense basaltic lava. They were discovered in the 1960s of the 20th century. Mascons exerted a gravitational influence on the orbital motion of lunar orbital probes. Local magnetic regions are also found around some craters, although the Moon does not have a global magnetic field.
Air and water
Naturally, both philosophers and romantics have long dreamed of going to the Moon and finding intelligent life there. But the possibility of lunar life (except perhaps for certain types of hardy microbes) has been disproved. This happened after the realization that the Moon has neither an atmosphere nor liquid water. However, recent observations have confirmed the existence of significant, deep craters at the lunar poles.
Earth-Moon interaction
The gravitational interaction between the Earth and the Moon causes some interesting effects. The most obvious of these are tides. The Moon's gravitational pull is stronger on the side of Earth closest to the Moon. Because the Earth and its oceans are not completely rigid, they are pulled towards the Moon. From our point of view, we see two small "bulges". One in the direction of the Moon and one directly opposite. The effect is much stronger in the oceans than in solid crust, so the change in water level is greater. Because the Earth rotates much faster than the Moon moves in its orbit, the "bulges" move around the Earth about once a day. Therefore, there are two tides per day.
The asymmetrical nature of this gravitational interaction causes the Moon to rotate in sync with the Earth. That is, it is locked in a phase of its orbit in which the same side always faces us. Just as the rotation of the Earth is slowed down by the influence of the Moon, in the distant past the rotation of the Moon was slowed down by the influence of the Earth. But in the latter case the effect was much stronger. As the Moon's rotation rate slowed down to match its orbital period, it no longer had any torque. A stable situation has been achieved. The same thing happened with most of the other satellites in the solar system.
another side of the moon
The Moon wobbles a bit (due to its not entirely circular orbit). Therefore, from time to time you can see most its surface on the reverse side. But much of the far side was completely unknown until the Luna 3 probe photographed it in 1959.
| Lunar statistics | |
|---|---|
| average distance from the center of the Earth | 384,400 km (238,906 mi) |
| diameter | 3,476 km (2,160 mi) |
| mass (Earth = 1) | 0,0122 |
| average density | 3.34 g/cm3 |
| surface gravity (Earth = 1) | 0,165 |
| second escape velocity | 2.38 km/s (8,568 km/h) |
| orbital period | 27.3 days |
| orbital eccentricity | 0,055 |
| orbital inclination | 5.1° |
| axial period | 27.3 days (gravity lock) |
| Maximum. surface temperature | 117oC (243oF) |
| minimum surface temperature | -163oC (-261oC) |
| albedo | 0,07 |
Some Notable Features on the Moon |
|
|---|---|
| Peculiarity | Description |
| Aitken Basin | Impact basin in the south polar region. With a diameter of about 2,500 kilometers, a maximum depth of more than 12 kilometers and an average depth of about 10 kilometers, it is the largest and deepest impact basin in the Solar System |
| Apennines | A mountain range that rises to 4572 meters on the southeastern edge of Mare Imbrium. The largest difference in altitude on the Moon, higher than the Himalayan front and the plains of India and Nepal. The Apollo 15 landing site was chosen so that astronauts could travel from the Lunar Module to the base of the Apennines during two excursions |
| Bailly | The largest crater on the outskirts of the Moon with a diameter of 295 kilometers and a maximum depth of 3.96 kilometers. Very eroded structure |
| Copernicus | The crater is 93 kilometers wide, which is one of the most visible objects on the lunar surface. Formed less than 1 billion years ago, it is one of the youngest craters on the Moon. He has a system bright rays, most clearly visible under the full Moon |
| Sea of Rains | The largest and youngest of the Moon's giant pools. The asteroid impact that formed it about 3.9 billion years ago nearly ripped apart the Moon's surface; Magma erupted onto most of the lunar surface from deep cracks that appeared. Lava flowed through these cracks, filling much of the basin and leaving a dark 1,300-kilometer-wide feature known as the Mare Imbrium. |
| Sea East | Formed 3.8 to 3.9 billion years ago, showing three concentric rings of mountains. Strong radial lines created by the ejecta flow are also evident |
| Crater Tycho | A magnificent 85 kilometer wide crater associated with the brightest and most extensive ray system on the Moon. In some cases, the rays extend over 1,500 kilometers; their brightness indicates that Tycho was formed relatively recently. Possibly within the last 3 billion years |
In astrology, the Moon is considered the personification of the feminine, maternal principle. The moon is fickle and mysterious, like a woman.
The phases of the moon are closely related to many life cycles on the ground. In different Moon phases its effect on the human body also changes.
It has been noticed that during the waning phase of the Moon, the number of boys born increases and the number of girls born decreases. Not only in patients, but also in healthy people The influence of the Moon is quite noticeable. It is expressed, for example, in increased ability to work and excitability during the full moon, as well as decreased activity and increased fatigue during the new moon.
There are also statistics indicating an increase in the number of crimes during the full moon. Thus, it can be concluded that there is a connection betweenMoon phases and the state of mind of people, expressed in changes in mood.
Moon
The moon is the only one natural satellite Earth. It is the second brightest object in the earth's sky after the Sun and the fifth largest natural satellite in the solar system. It is also the first (and as of 2009, the only) extraterrestrial object of natural origin visited by humans. The average distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon is 384,467 km.
Moon- the only natural satellite of the Earth. The distance from the Earth to the Moon is 384.4 thousand km. The Moon's diameter is 3,474 km, slightly more than a quarter the diameter of the Earth. Accordingly, the size of the Moon by volume is only 2% of the volume of the Earth. Due to its smaller mass, the gravitational force on the Moon is 6 times less than on Earth. The Moon's orbital period around the Earth is 27.3 days. Due to the fact that the Moon has a fairly large mass and is relatively close to the Earth, we observe gravitational interaction between them, in the form of ebbs and flows. Tides are more noticeable on the coasts of the oceans, where they reach several meters in size; they also exist in closed bodies of water, and even in the earth’s crust. As a result of the tides, energy is lost in the Earth-Moon system due to friction that occurs between the oceans and the floor, and between the Earth's crust and mantle. This loss of energy causes the force of interaction between the Earth and the Moon to constantly decrease, which explains why the distance between the Earth and the Moon increases by about 4 cm every year.
The Moon is the only celestial body on which man has landed. The first artificial object to overcome the Earth's gravity and fly near the Moon was the Soviet Luna 1 station. The first satellite to reach the surface of the Moon was Luna 2. The first satellite to take photographs of the far side of the Moon was Luna 3. All three of these lunar programs were successfully completed in 1959. The first successful soft landing on the Moon was carried out by the Soviet Luna 9 station. The American Apollo lunar program began in the early 60s of the last century with President Kennedy's statement that the United States would launch a man on the Moon before the end of the 60s. As a result of this program, the United States managed to carry out 6 successful flights to the Moon between 1969 and 1972. After the completion of the Apollo program, research on our natural satellite virtually ceased for a period of more than 30 years. Only at the beginning of this century, several countries, including Russia, the USA and China, announced the start of their lunar programs, the results of which should be the return of man to the Moon.
Two sides of the moon
The periods of revolution of the Moon around its own axis and around the Earth are the same, respectively, the Moon faces the Earth all the time with only one side. Due to the peculiarity of the rotation of the Moon and the Earth, we can observe about 59% of the Moon's surface. We call that part of the Moon that is not visible to an observer from Earth the “far side” of the Moon. back side The moon was first photographed by the Soviet lunar probe Luna 3 in 1959.
Full Moon 2009
| Moscow time (MSK) | Universal Time(UTC) | ||||
| Sun | January 11, 2009 | 06:25:13 | Sun | January 11, 2009 | 03:25:13 |
| Mon | February 9, 2009 | 17:47:17 | Mon | February 9, 2009 | 14:47:17 |
| Wed | March 11, 2009 | 05:35:49 | Wed | March 11, 2009 | 02:35:49 |
| Thu | April 9, 2009 | 18:53:58 | Thu | April 9, 2009 | 14:53:58 |
| Sat | May 9, 2009 | 07:59:47 | Sat | May 9, 2009 | 03:59:47 |
| Sun | June 7, 2009 | 22:10:38 | Sun | June 7, 2009 | 18:10:38 |
| W | July 7, 2009 | 13:20:38 | W | July 7, 2009 | 09:20:38 |
| Thu | August 6, 2009 | 04:53:41 | Thu | August 6, 2009 | 00:53:41 |
| Fri | September 4, 2009 | 20:00:54 | Fri | September 4, 2009 | 16:00:54 |
| Sun | October 4, 2009 | 10:08:37 | Sun | October 4, 2009 | 06:08:37 |
| Mon | November 2, 2009 | 22:12:58 | Mon | November 2, 2009 | 19:12:58 |
| Wed | December 2, 2009 | 10:29:40 | Wed | December 2, 2009 | 07:29:40 |
| Thu | December 31, 2009 | 22:11:26 | Thu | December 31, 2009 |
19:11:26 |
New Moon 2009
| Moscow time (MSK) | Universal Time (UTC) | ||||
| Mon | January 26, 2009 | 10:51:44 | Mon | January 26, 2009 | 07:51:44 |
| Wed | February 25, 2009 | 04:32:42 | Wed | February 25, 2009 | 01:32:42 |
| Thu | March 26, 2009 | 19:07:40 | Thu | March 26, 2009 | 16:07:40 |
| Sat | April 25, 2009 | 07:24:26 | Sat | April 25, 2009 | 03:24:26 |
| Sun | May 24, 2009 | 16:09:09 | Sun | May 24, 2009 | 12:09:09 |
| Mon | June 22, 2009 | 23:31:53 | Mon | June 22, 2009 | 19:31:53 |
| Wed | July 22, 2009 | 06:34:12 | Wed | July 22, 2009 | 02:34:12 |
| Thu | August 20, 2009 | 14:02:12 | Thu | August 20, 2009 | 10:02:12 |
| Fri | September 18, 2009 | 22:41:22 | Fri | September 18, 2009 | 18:41:22 |
| Sun | October 18, 2009 | 09:27:22 | Sun | October 18, 2009 | 05:27:22 |
| November 16, 2009 | 22:10:56 | Mon | November 16, 2009 | 19:10:56 | |
| Wed | December 16, 2009 | 15:03:20 | Wed | December 16, 2009 |
12:03:20 |
There are two important points in the lunar month that are associated with the position of the Moon relative to the Sun. This is the new moon and full moon.
Neomenia (Greek neomenia - "new moon" "), obsolete - first light - the first appearance of the crescent moon in the sky after the new moon.Neomenia occurs no later than 3 days after the new moon.In Neomenia, the Moon is observed at dusk a few minutes before it sets.
Moon phases
Phases of the Moon(from Greek Phasis - appearance)
Moon phases
- various shapes The part of the Moon visible from the Earth illuminated by the Sun. The change in phases of the Moon is caused by a change in the relative positions of the Sun, Earth and Moon. There are four main phases of the Moon:
-1- new moon;
-2- first quarter;
-3- full moon;
-4- last quarter.
Age of the Moon
The age of the Moon is the number of days that have passed since the new moon phase.
Gibbous Moon
Gibbous Moon - the phase of the Moon between the first quarter and the full moon or between the full moon and the last quarter.
Lunar rhythms
Lunar rhythms- biological rhythms corresponding in cycle to the phases of the Moon (29.53 days) or the lunar day (24.8 hours). Lunar rhythms are characteristic of marine plants and animals.
Moon month
Lunar month - period of change lunar phases, starting with the new moon and then the first quarter, full moon and last quarter.
New moon
A new moon is one of the four main phases of the Moon, when the Moon passes approximately between the Sun and the Earth between the Earth and the Sun and is not visible at all from the Earth.
The moment of the new moon occurs when the Moon joins the Sun.
If during a new moon the Moon passes directly between the Earth and the Sun, then a solar eclipse is observed.
First quarter
The first quarter is the phase of the Moon when exactly half of the visible disk is illuminated and the Moon is waxing.
The first quarter occurs when the Moon is in eastern quadrature.
Full moon
A full moon is one of the four main phases of the Moon, when the Moon is in the opposite direction from the Sun and is visible from the Earth as a full disk.
The moment of the full moon occurs when the Moon and the Sun are in opposition.
If during a full moon the Moon passes through the Earth's shadow, a lunar eclipse is observed.
Last quarter
The last quarter is the phase of the Moon when exactly half of the visible disk is illuminated and the Moon is waning.
The last quarter occurs when the Moon is in western quadrature.
Waxing Crescent
A waxing moon is part of the moon phase cycle when the illuminated portion of the visible disk increases in size.
Synodic month
A synodic month is the period of time between two successive new moons, with an average duration of 29.53059 days.
The synodic month is longer than the sidereal month by the time the Moon passes an additional 1/13 of its orbit.
Waning moon
A waning moon is part of the moon phase cycle when the illuminated portion of the visible disk decreases.
Lunar calendar for September 2009
September 1 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 19:15 12, then 13 lunar day
September 1 - Moon in the sign of Aquarius from 3:43 GMT
September 1 - no favorable time: until 3:43 GMT
September 2 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 19:27 13, then 14 lunar day
September 2 - Moon in the sign of Aquarius
September 3 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 19:37 14, then 15 lunar day
September 3 - Moon in the sign of Pisces from 16:00 GMT
September 3 - unfavorable time: 5:20 - 16:00 GMT
September 4 - Moon phase: full moon at 16:03 GMT
until 19:45 15th, then 16th lunar day
September 4 - Moon in the sign of Pisces
September 5 - Moon phase: III quarter (waning Moon), until 19:55 16, then 17 lunar day
September 5 - Moon in the sign of Pisces
September 5 - unfavorable time: from 16:50 GMT until the end of the day
September 6 - Moon phase: III quarter (waning Moon), until 20:02 17, then 18 lunar day
September 6 - Moon in the sign of Aries from 2:15 GMT
September 6 - unfavorable time: until 2:15 GMT
September 7 - Moon phase: III quarter (waning Moon), until 20:12 18, then 19 lunar day
September 7 - Moon in Aries
September 7 - favorable time: all day
September 8 - Moon phase: III quarter (waning Moon), until 20:25 19, then 20 lunar day
September 8 - Moon in the sign of Taurus from 10:18 GMT
September 8 - unfavorable time: 00:13 - 10:18 GMT
September 9 - Moon phase: III quarter (waning Moon), until 20:45 20, then 21 lunar days
September 9 - Moon in Taurus
September 10 - Moon phase: III quarter (waning Moon), until 21:11 21, then 22 lunar day
September 10 - Moon in the sign of Gemini from 16:17 GMT
September 10 - favorable time: 6:30 - 7:17 GMT
September 10 - unfavorable time: 7:17 - 16:17 GMT
September 11 - Moon phase: III quarter (waning Moon), until 21:55 22, then 23 lunar day
September 11 - Moon in the sign of Gemini
September 12 - Moon phase: IV quarter (waning Moon), until 22:55 23, then 24 lunar day
September 12 - Moon in the sign of Cancer from 20:20 GMT
September 12 - unfavorable time: 11:30 - 20:20 GMT
September 13 - Moon phase: IV quarter (waning Moon), 24 lunar day
September 13 - Moon in the sign of Cancer
September 14 - Moon phase: IV quarter (waning Moon), from 00:17 25 lunar day
September 14 - Moon in Leo from 22:40 GMT
September 14 - favorable time: until 14:00 GMT
September 14 - unfavorable time: 14:00 - 22:40 GMT
September 15 - Moon phase: IV quarter (waning Moon), from 1:50 lunar day 26
September 15 - Moon in Leo
September 16 - Moon phase: IV quarter (waning Moon), from 3:25 lunar day 27
September 16 - Moon in the sign of Virgo from 23:56 GMT
September 16 - favorable time: 14:45 - 16:10 GMT
September 16 - unfavorable time: 16:10 - 23:56 GMT
September 17 - Moon phase: IV quarter (waning Moon), from 5:00 lunar day 28
September 17 - Moon in Virgo
September 18 - Moon phase: new moon at 18:45 GMT
from 6:33 to 22:45 29th, then 1st lunar day
September 18 - Moon in Virgo
September 18 - favorable time: from 19:30 GMT until the end of the day
September 19 - Moon phase: I quarter (young Moon), from 8:05 2nd lunar day
September 19 - Moon in the sign of Libra from 1:26 GMT
September 19 - unfavorable time: until 1:26 GMT
September 20 - Moon phase: I quarter (young Moon), from 9:33 3 lunar day
September 20 - Moon in the sign of Libra
September 20 - favorable time: 4:00 - 18:45 GMT
September 20 - unfavorable time: from 18:45 GMT until the end of the day
September 21 - Moon phase: I quarter (young Moon), from 11:02 4th lunar day
September 21 - Moon in the sign of Scorpio from 4:52 GMT
September 21 - unfavorable time: until 4:52 GMT
September 22 - Moon phase: I quarter (young Moon), from 12:30 5 lunar day
September 22 - Moon in the sign of Scorpio
September 23 - Moon phase: I quarter (young Moon), from 13:48 6 lunar day
September 23 - Moon in the sign of Sagittarius from 11:43 GMT
September 23 - favorable time: 1:00 - 3:33 GMT
September 23 - unfavorable time: 3:33 - 11:43 GMT
September 24 - Moon phase: I quarter (young Moon), until 15:00 6, then 7 lunar day
September 24 - Moon in the sign of Sagittarius
September 25 - Moon phase: I quarter (young Moon), until 15:53 7, then 8 lunar day
September 25 - Moon in the sign of Capricorn from 22:20 GMT
September 25 - unfavorable time: 14:15 - 22:20 GMT
September 26 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 16:33 8, then 9 lunar day
September 26 - Moon in the sign of Capricorn
September 27 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 17:00 9, then 10 lunar day
September 27 - Moon in the sign of Capricorn
September 27 - favorable time: from 14:30 GMT until the end of the day
September 28 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 17:20 10, then 11 lunar day
September 28 - Moon in the sign of Aquarius from 11:07 GMT
September 28 - favorable time: until 3:33 GMT
September 28 - unfavorable time: 3:33 - 11:07 GMT
September 29 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 17:33 11, then 12 lunar day
September 29 - Moon in the sign of Aquarius
September 30 - Moon phase: II quarter (young Moon), until 17:45 12, then 13 lunar day
September 30 - Moon in the sign of Pisces from 23:25 GMT
September 30 - unfavorable time: 11:35 - 23:25 GMT
Lunar "oceans" and "seas"
Dark areas of the surface that we can see from Earth on the surface Moon, we call “oceans” and “seas”. Such names come from antiquity, when ancient astronomers thought that Moon has seas and oceans, just like the Earth. In fact, these dark areas of the Moon's surface were formed as a result of volcanic eruptions and are filled with basalt, which is darker than the surrounding rocks.
rice. left - Moon as we see it, on the right - so if the Moon actually had seas, oceans and an atmosphere.
Lunar mountains and plateaus
There are several mountain ranges and plateaus present on the Moon. They differ from the lunar “oceans” in being lighter in color. The lunar mountains, unlike the mountains on Earth, were formed as a result of collisions of giant meteorites with the surface, and not as a result of tectonic processes.
Lunar craters
On the surface of the Moon we can see evidence of bombardment of its surface by asteroids, comets and meteorites. There are about half a million craters larger than 1 km in size. Due to the lack of atmosphere, water and significant geological processes the lunar craters were virtually unchanged and even ancient craters were preserved on its surface. The largest crater on the Moon is located on the far side of the Moon; it measures 2240 km in diameter and 13 km deep.
Lunar regolith
Surface Moon covered with a layer of rock, crushed to a dusty state as a result of bombardment by meteorites over millions of years. This rock is called regolith. The thickness of the regolith layer varies from 3 meters in areas of the lunar “oceans” to 20 m on the lunar plateaus.
Water on the Moon
No water was found in samples of lunar rock brought to Earth by astronauts participating in the Apollo mission and by Soviet lunar rovers. Although the surface of the Moon has been bombarded by comets since its formation, and as is known, the nuclei of comets consist mostly of ice. Accordingly, as a result, part of this ice could remain on the surface of our satellite. Under the influence of solar radiation, water atoms should have disintegrated into hydrogen and oxygen atoms and, due to weak gravity, simply evaporated into open space. Mapping of the lunar surface by the Clementine satellite, launched by NASA in 1994, discovered craters in the polar regions of the Moon that are constantly in shadow and could contain water. Due to the great importance of water availability for future colonization Moon lunar bases are planned to be located precisely in the circumpolar regions of our satellite.
Internal structure
The Moon, like the Earth, consists of distinct layers: crust, mantle and core. This structure is believed to have formed immediately after the formation of the Moon - 4.5 billion years ago. The thickness of the lunar crust is believed to be 50 km. Moonquakes occur within the thickness of the lunar mantle, but unlike earthquakes, which are caused by the movement of tectonic plates, moonquakes are caused by the tidal forces of the Earth. The Moon's core, like the Earth's core, consists of iron, but its size is much smaller and is 350 km in radius. The average density of the Moon is 3.3 g/cm3.
Lunar atmosphere
One of the sources of the lunar atmosphere are gases that are released from the lunar crust, such gases include radon gas. Another source of gases in the atmosphere Moon are gases released when the lunar surface is bombarded by micrometeorites and the solar wind. Due to the weak magnetic and gravitational field Moon Almost all gases from the atmosphere escape into outer space.
Origin of the Moon
There are several theories explaining the formation Moon. One of the first theories to explain the formation of the Moon was the theory that the Moon was formed as a result of centrifugal forces during the formation of the Earth. As a result of these forces, some earth's crust was thrown into outer space. From this part the Moon was formed. Due to the fact that, as scientists believe, throughout the history of the Earth, our planet has never had a sufficient rotation speed to confirm this theory, this point of view on the process of formation of the Moon is considered to be this moment outdated. Another theory suggests that the Moon formed separately from the Earth, and was subsequently simply captured by the Earth's gravitational field. The third theory explains that both the Earth and the Moon were formed from a single protoplanetary cloud and the process of their formation took place simultaneously.
Although the above three theories of the formation of the Moon explain its origin, they all contain certain contradictions. The dominant theory of the formation of the Moon today is the theory of a giant collision of the proto-Earth with a celestial body the size of the planet Mars
Earth-Moon system
Moon does full turn around the Earth for 27.3 days. However, due to the Earth's rotation around the Sun, an observer on Earth can observe the cyclic change of lunar phases only every 29.5 days. The Moon's motion around the Earth occurs in the plane of the ecliptic, and not in the plane of the Earth's equator (most of the natural satellites of other planets rotate in the plane of the equator of their planets).
The tides that we observe on Earth occur mostly under the influence of the Moon; the Sun has only a small effect on these processes. Tidal processes are the cause of the gradual removal of the Moon from the Earth, which is caused by the loss of angular momentum in the Earth-Moon system. The distance between the Earth and the Moon increases by 3.8 meters every century. Also, these processes are responsible for the gradual slowing down of the Earth’s rotation around its axis, which increases the duration earthly days by 0.002 seconds per century.
Earth system - Moon Some scientists consider it not as a Planet-Satellite system, but as a double planet, since the size and mass of the Moon are quite large. The diameter of the Moon is 3/4 the diameter of the Earth, and the mass of the Moon is 1/81 the mass of the Earth. As a result, the Earth-Moon system rotates not around the center of the Earth, but around the center of mass of the Earth-Moon system, which is located 1,700 km below the Earth's surface.
Moon observations
During full moon its brightness is -12.6. For comparison, the brightness of the Sun is -26.8. The disk of the Moon, when it is closer to the horizon, appears larger to the observer, although in fact it is smaller by about 1.5% compared to when Moon is at its zenith. An explanation of this phenomenon can be read in the article lunar illusion.
Another interesting optical effect is that Moon seems almost completely white to us, although in fact it reflects only 7% sunlight falling on its surface (approximately like coal). Because of Moon is the only object in the sky of this size illuminated by reflected sunlight, and an optical illusion occurs and Moon seems white to us.
Also Moon can cause various atmospheric effects, just like the Sun. For example, when observing the Moon, when there is a thin layer of clouds between the observer and the Moon, we can observe a halo effect.
Moon illusion
The moon illusion is an optical illusion in which the Moon seen near the horizon appears larger than the Moon seen high in the sky. The same optical illusion occurs when observing the Sun.
A typical erroneous explanation for this effect is the assumption that the Earth's atmosphere acts as a kind of lens that increases the apparent diameter of the Moon.
Proof that the observed effect is only an optical illusion can be obtained from photographs taken with the same camera settings; in such photographs the size of the Moon will be the same regardless of where it is located. Moon: High in the sky or near the horizon.
There are several different theories explaining this effect.
According to one of these theories, which is true in given time considered obsolete. The visual part of the human brain sees the sky not as a hemisphere, which it actually is, but as a plane. When we see clouds, birds, or planes in the sky, they appear smaller to the observer when they are near the horizon than when they are overhead because the apparent size of objects decreases with increasing distance. The Moon, unlike terrestrial objects, when it is near the horizon has approximately the same apparent angular diameter as when it is at the zenith, but the human brain, trying to compensate for perspective distortions, sees the disk of the Moon larger than it actually is. This effect is called the Emmert effect: when two objects have the same apparent size, but one object, located further from the observer, appears larger.
According to the theory of "relative size", which is currently accepted by most scientists, the visual size of an object of observation depends primarily on the size of other objects that we observe at the same time. Thus, when we observe the Moon close to the horizon, other objects come into our field of vision, against the background of which the Moon appears larger than it actually is.
History of lunar exploration
Research Moon using spacecraft began on September 14, 1959 with the collision of the Luna 2 automatic station with the surface of our satellite. Until this point, the only method of exploring the Moon was by observing the Moon. Galileo's invention of the telescope in 1609 was a major milestone in astronomy, particularly in the observation of the Moon. Galileo himself used his telescope to study the mountains and craters on the lunar surface.
LunokhodWith the beginning of the space race between the USSR and the USA during cold war The moon was at the center of the space programs of both the USSR and the USA. From the US perspective, the 1969 moon landing was the culmination of the lunar race. On the other hand, many significant scientific milestones were achieved by the Soviet Union before the United States. For example, the first photographs of the far side of the Moon were taken by a Soviet satellite in 1959.
The first man-made object to reach the Moon was the Soviet Luna 2 station. The far side of the Moon was photographed by the Luna 3 station on October 7, 1959. After these and other achievements of the USSR in space exploration, US President John Kennedy formulated the main US task in space as landing on the Moon.
Despite all the efforts of the United States, Soviet Union remained a leader in lunar exploration for a long time. The Luna 9 station was the first to make a soft landing on the surface of our natural satellite. After landing, Luna 9 transmitted the first photographs of the lunar surface. The Luna 9 landing proved that it was possible to land safely on the Moon. This was especially important because until that moment it was believed that the surface of the Moon consisted of a layer of dust, which could be several meters thick and any object would simply “drown” in this layer of dust. The first artificial satellite of the Moon was also the Soviet station Luna 10, launched on March 31, 1966.
Apollo 11 The American program for manned exploration of the Moon was called Apollo. First practical result It came from the Apollo 8 flyby of the Moon on December 24, 1968. Humanity first set foot on the surface of the Moon on July 20, 1969. The first person to leave his mark on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 spacecraft. The first automatic robot on the surface of the Moon was the Soviet Lunokhod 1, which landed on the Moon on November 17, 1970. Last Man visited the moon in 1972.
Samples of lunar rock were brought to Earth as part of Soviet program Luna by automatic stations Luna 16, 20 and 24. Also, samples of lunar rock were delivered to Earth by astronauts of the Apollo mission.
From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, 65 man-made objects reached the lunar surface. But after the Luna 26 station, lunar exploration virtually ceased. The Soviet Union switched its exploration to Venus and the United States to Mars.
Latest lunar exploration
Japan launched its research probe to the Moon. The Hiten probe entered lunar orbit, making Japan the third country to successfully launch to the Moon. However, due to technical problems, this mission was not carried out in full.
The American space agency NASA launched the Clementine mission in 1994 and the Lunar Prospector mission in 1998.
In 2003, the European Space Agency launched the SMART 1 space probe to the Moon, the main task of which was to photograph the lunar surface in X-ray and infrared ranges.
Future plans for lunar exploration
On January 14, 2004, US President George W. Bush unveiled a new US program for space exploration. One of the stages of this program will be the return of man to the Moon by 2020. The first result of this program should be the launch of the Lunar Reconnaissance satellite
Satellites and planets of the solar system
The natural satellites of planets play a huge role in the life of these space objects. Moreover, even we humans are capable of feeling the influence of our planet’s only natural satellite – the Moon.
The natural satellites of the planets of the solar system have aroused keen interest among astronomers since ancient times. To this day, scientists are studying them. What are these space objects?
Natural satellites of planets are cosmic bodies of natural origin that orbit around planets. The most interesting for us are the natural satellites of the planets of the solar system, since they are in close proximity to us.
There are only two planets in the solar system that do not have natural satellites. These are Venus and Mercury. Although it is assumed that Mercury previously had natural satellites, this planet lost them in the process of its evolution. As for the rest of the planets in the solar system, each of them has at least one natural satellite. The most famous of them is the Moon, which is our planet’s faithful cosmic companion. Mars has, Jupiter -, Saturn -, Uranus -, Neptune -. Among these satellites we can find both very unremarkable objects, consisting mainly of stone, and very interesting specimens that deserve special attention, and which we will discuss below.
Classification of satellites
Scientists divide planetary satellites into two types: satellites of artificial origin and natural ones. Satellites of artificial origin or, as they are also called, artificial satellites are spacecraft created by people that make it possible to observe the planet around which they orbit, as well as other astronomical objects from space. Typically, artificial satellites are used to monitor the weather, radio broadcasts, changes in the topography of the planet's surface, and also for military purposes.
The ISS is the largest artificial satellite of the Earth
It should be noted that it is not only the Earth that has satellites of artificial origin, as many people believe. More than a dozen artificial satellites created by mankind revolve around the two closest planets to us - Venus and Mars. They allow you to monitor climatic conditions, changes in terrain, as well as receive other relevant information regarding our space neighbors.
Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system
The second category of satellites - natural satellites of planets - is of great interest to us in this article. Natural satellites differ from artificial ones in that they were created not by man, but by nature itself. It is believed that most of the satellites of the solar system are asteroids that were captured by the gravitational forces of the planets of this system. Subsequently, the asteroids took on a spherical shape and, as a result, began to revolve around the planet that captured them as a constant companion. There is also a theory that says that the natural satellites of planets are fragments of these planets themselves, which for one reason or another broke away from the planet itself during the process of its formation. By the way, according to this theory, this is how the Earth’s natural satellite, the Moon, came into being. This theory confirms chemical analysis of the Moon's composition. He showed that the chemical composition of the satellite is practically no different from the chemical composition of our planet, where the same chemical compounds are present as on the Moon.
Interesting facts about the most interesting satellites
One of the most interesting natural satellites of the planets of the solar system is the natural satellite. Charon, in comparison with Pluto, is so huge that many astronomers call these two space objects nothing more than a double dwarf planet. The planet Pluto is only twice the size of its natural satellite.
The natural satellite is of keen interest to astronomers. Most of the natural satellites of the solar system's planets are composed primarily of ice, rock, or both, resulting in them lacking an atmosphere. However, Titan has this, and quite dense one, as well as lakes of liquid hydrocarbons.
Another natural satellite that gives scientists hope for discovering extraterrestrial life forms is Jupiter’s satellite. It is believed that under the thick layer of ice that covers the satellite there is an ocean, within which there are thermal springs- exactly the same as on Earth. Since some deep-sea life forms on Earth exist thanks to these sources, it is believed that similar life forms may exist on Titan.
The planet Jupiter has another interesting natural satellite -. Io is the only satellite of a planet in the solar system on which astrophysicists first discovered active volcanoes. It is for this reason that it is of particular interest to space researchers.
Natural satellite research
Research on the natural satellites of the planets of the Solar System has interested the minds of astronomers since ancient times. Since the invention of the first telescope, people have been actively studying these celestial objects. The breakthrough in the development of civilization made it possible not only to discover a colossal number of satellites of various planets of the solar system, but also to set man on the main, closest to us, satellite of the Earth - the Moon. July 21, 1969, American astronaut Neil Armstrong and his crew spaceship Apollo 11 first set foot on the surface of the Moon, which caused rejoicing in the hearts of humanity at that time and is still considered one of the most important and significant events in space exploration.
In addition to the Moon, scientists are actively studying other natural satellites of the planets of the solar system. To do this, astronomers use not only visual and radar observation methods, but also use modern spacecraft, as well as artificial satellites. For example, the “” spacecraft for the first time transmitted to Earth images of several of Jupiter’s largest satellites:,. In particular, it was thanks to these images that scientists were able to record the presence of volcanoes on the moon Io, and the ocean on Europa.
Today, the global community of space researchers continues to be actively engaged in the study of the natural satellites of the planets of the solar system. In addition to various government programs, there are also private projects aimed at studying these space objects. In particular, the world-famous American company Google is currently developing a tourist lunar rover, on which many people could take a walk on the Moon.
(that's right - in the plural) have occupied scientists for several centuries. Astronomers of the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries tried to find companions of the Moon. However, time after time, their assumptions and even convincing evidence turned out to be wrong. Today, everyone knows from school that the only natural satellite of the Earth is the cosmic body the Moon. Many other candidates are also of interest to astronomers, since they are not fictitious, but real existing objects that were mistakenly assigned the status of a permanent satellite of our planet.
Bolide
Many people who are interested in studying celestial bodies are well aware of the French astronomer Frederic Petit. He was director of the Toulouse Observatory in the mid-19th century. Today, Petit is best known as a proponent of the theory that the Moon is not the only natural satellite of the Earth, but one of several. According to the astronomer, bolides (large and fairly bright meteors) were suitable for the role of its companions. The satellite candidates orbited the planet in an elliptical orbit. The most famous is the fireball that Petit observed in 1846. Having summarized the data - his and other scientists - about the object, the astronomer concluded that the body rotates with a period of 2 hours 45 minutes, with perigee at a distance of 11.4 km and apogee at 3570 km.
Despite the fact that the measurements and calculations of Frederic Petit were confirmed by some astronomers, his assumption was soon refuted. In 1851, Urbain Le Verrier provided evidence that the theory of the Toulouse scientist was erroneous.
New assumptions
Petit was not the only astronomer who tried to refute the conventional wisdom about how many natural satellites the Earth has. His colleague in this matter was a scientist from Hamburg, Dr. Georg Waltemath. In 1898, he announced the discovery of a system of small satellites. One of them, according to the scientist’s calculations, was located at a distance of just over a million kilometers from the Earth and made one revolution in 119 days. The diameter of the hypothetical satellite was 700 km.
Valtemat expected that the second Moon would pass across the solar disk in February 1898, and this would prove the researcher was right. The satellite was actually spotted by amateur astronomers in Germany. However, none of the professionals who observed the Sun that day noticed anything similar.
Another try
Valtemat did not give up his search. In July of the same year, he wrote an article about another candidate for the role of a lunar companion. with a diameter of 746 km, orbited, according to the calculations of the author of the theory, at a distance slightly exceeding 400 thousand kilometers from our planet. However, these data also have not been confirmed. The hypothetical natural satellites of the Earth, Valtemata, could not obtain the status of real-life objects.
Mystic
The peculiarity of the satellite “discovered” by Valtemat was the impossibility of observing it at any other moments other than the time of passage across the disk of the Sun. The object practically did not reflect light, and therefore was hardly noticeable. In 1918, astrologer Walter Hornold announced the rediscovery of the moon Valtemata. He confirmed his “dark” nature and named him Lilith (that, according to Kabbalah, was the name of Adam’s first wife). The astrologer insisted that the second Moon was comparable in mass to the first.
In the scientific world, these statements only caused a smile. Such a massive body would not go unnoticed, since its presence would have a significant impact on the Moon, which would affect its movement.
Policy
The Earth's natural satellite (the Moon) or Mars and Venus, its closest neighbors, have always been associated with some secrets in people's minds. In the past century, these space objects were often thought of as the habitats of alien civilizations or military bases of unfriendly states. Against the background of such assumptions, hypotheses about artificial satellites, launched into orbit in an atmosphere of strict secrecy.
In the middle of the last century, there were rumors about two similar objects. After some time, reports about their natural origin began to appear in the media. The excitement around new satellites subsided in 1959, when astronomer Clyde Tombaugh (the scientist who discovered Pluto), after a long study of the space around the Earth, announced the absence of any objects brighter than magnitude 12-14.
Monitoring of near-Earth space
Nowadays, few people do not know what the natural Earth is called. The moon today is recognized as the one and only. However, astronomers constantly monitor outer space in the vicinity of our planet. The purpose of such research is not to search for new satellites, but to protect against possible collisions, predict them, and ensure the safety of the stations. Clyde Tombaugh was one of the first to undertake such a study.
Today, the search for cosmic bodies in near-Earth space is the goal of several large projects. So far, no new natural satellites of the Earth have been discovered during the research process.
Quasi-satellites
Of course, the Moon is not the only object close to our planet. Research recent years supplied a wealth of information of this kind. There are asteroids that are in 1:1 orbital resonance with the Earth. In the media and popular science literature they are often referred to as “second moons”. The main difference between such objects is the fact that they do not revolve around the Earth, but around the Sun.
A good example of such a cosmic body is the asteroid (3753) Cruithney. During its movement it crosses Venus and Mars. The asteroid's orbit is highly elongated, but, unfortunately, it never comes close enough to our planet to be accessible to observation through weak equipment. Cruithne can only be seen with a sufficiently powerful telescope.
Trojans
There is another group of objects that are sometimes designated as natural satellites of the Earth, but are not. These are the so-called Trojans - asteroids moving in the same orbit as our planet, but ahead or catching up with it. To date, only one such body has been confirmed to exist. This is asteroid 2010 TK7. It is 60º ahead of the Earth. 2010 TK7 is a small (300 m in diameter) and rather faint object. Its discovery increased the interest of scientists in searching for Trojans in the vicinity of the Earth.
Optical effect
The question “how many natural satellites does the Earth have” sometimes, although extremely rarely, arises simply when looking at the night sky. Under a certain set of circumstances, the simultaneous presence of several factors above your head, you can observe a phenomenon called a false moon. For this, the full (or almost full) night light must be bright enough. A halo appears around him. The moon's rays are refracted in the ice crystals of cirrostratus clouds and bright luminous points are formed on both sides of the satellite. An inexperienced observer may believe for some moments that where the natural satellite of the Earth (the Moon) or Mars and other planets roam space, new real-life space objects have appeared. However, the illusion will dissipate quite quickly. The false moon, or parselena, is still more like a trick of light than it actually is.
Dual system
The Moon, as the closest space object to the Earth, is always at the center of many research projects. Of course, not everything is known about her. The theory of origin, for example, still causes a lot of controversy. However, it can safely be called one of the most studied objects in space, as well as a marker, a distinctive sign of our home in the Universe. The latter fact is well illustrated by one of the variants of the flag of our planet, which depicts the natural satellite of the Earth.
The most interesting thing is that in light of relatively recent research, the status of the Moon is not so clear-cut. According to astronomers, the two most studied objects are a double planet. The Earth's natural satellite and our cosmic home revolve around the same center of mass. It is located not in the center of the Earth, but at a distance of almost 5 thousand kilometers from it. This hypothesis is also supported by their rather impressive size (and their ratio to the size of the Earth) compared to other satellites. An example of a similar system is Pluto and Charon, which orbit the same center of mass and always face the same side towards each other.
So, today everyone understands the name of the Earth’s natural satellite and that there is only one. The search for his companions left a noticeable mark on the history of astronomy and confirmed known fact: A person is never satisfied with what he has. However, it was thanks to this feature that many discoveries of the last century took place.
Physical conditions on the Moon, as on any other celestial body, are largely determined by its mass and size. The force of gravity on the surface of the Moon is six times less than on the surface of the Earth, so it is much easier for gas molecules to overcome gravity and fly into outer space than on Earth. This explains the absence of an atmosphere and hydrosphere on our natural satellite. Conditions on the surface of planetary bodies, which include the Moon, are also determined by the flow of energy coming from the Sun (or from the interior of the planet). The absence of an atmosphere on the Moon and the long duration of day and night (a lunar day is about 99 Earth days) lead to sharp temperature fluctuations on its surface: from +120°C at the subsolar point to -170°C at the diametrically opposite point. We are, of course, talking about the temperature of the surface material itself, the so-called regolith. The thermal conductivity of this finely divided substance is extremely low, which is why the lunar surface quickly heats up and quickly cools down over the course of lunar days, and at a depth of about a meter there are practically no daily temperature fluctuations. The main reason for the crushing of the surface rocks of the Moon is the fall of meteorites and other smaller bodies from outer space onto its surface. Due to the absence of an atmosphere, these bodies maintain a speed of about tens of kilometers per second before hitting the lunar surface. The absence of a gas shell around the Moon also determines the special mechanical properties of regolith: the sticking together of individual particles (due to the absence of oxide films) into porous clusters. As described by astronauts who visited the Moon, and as photographs of the tracks of lunar rovers show, this substance is similar in its physical and chemical properties (particle size, strength, etc.) to wet sand. According to its relief, the lunar surface is divided into two types, as can be seen on the map of the Moon: continents, visible from the Earth as light areas, and seas, visible as darker areas. Note that there is not a drop of water in these seas.
These areas differ, as we now know, in appearance, on geological history and on chemical composition. The most typical form of lunar relief are craters of various sizes. The diameter of the largest craters is 200 km, and those crater-holes that are noticeable in panoramas of the lunar surface are several centimeters in diameter. The smallest craters are visible on individual particles of lunar soil (regolith) when examined under a microscope. The relief forms of the lunar seas are more diverse. Here we see shafts stretching for hundreds of kilometers on their surface, once covered with liquid lava that flooded ancient craters. On the outskirts of the seas, and in other parts of the lunar surface, cracks are noticeable along which the crust shifts. In this case, fault-type mountains are sometimes formed. Folded mountains, as typical of our planet, are not found on the Moon. All these landforms can be clearly seen when observing the Moon through a telescope. A good idea of the lunar landscape is given by panoramas compiled on the basis of documentary photographs. Noteworthy are the smoothness of the outlines, the absence of pointed peaks, steep slopes, the poor color of the landscape and the presence of quite large number stones and clods.
The absence of erosion and weathering processes on the Moon leads to the fact that its surface is a kind of geological reserve, where for millions and billions of years all the relief forms that have arisen during this time are preserved in an unknown form, in other words, all geological history Moons.
This circumstance helps in studying the geological past of the Earth, which interests us from the point of view of searching for mineral reserves formed on our planet in those distant eras of which no traces have been preserved in its relief. Soviet automatic stations "Luna" and American expeditions under the Apollo program delivered instruments to the Moon intended for taking samples of lunar soil and delivering it to Earth, as well as for conducting magnetometric, seismological, astrophysical and other studies, both at landing sites and along the route of movement of lunar rovers. Photography from spacecraft made it possible to obtain materials for compiling full map The moon, including the far side, invisible from the Earth. Seismic studies have identified three types of moonquakes.
The first type is associated with the fall of meteorites on the Moon, the second is caused by falling sediments from spacecraft or specially produced explosions. The third is natural moonquakes, which occur, as on Earth, in seismically active areas located near crustal faults. Moonquakes are much weaker than earthquakes, but thanks to the high sensitivity of seismometers installed on the Moon, they were recorded in large quantities, i.e. several hundred. Detailed studies of the propagation of seismic waves made it possible to establish the following: the Moon’s crust is thicker than the Earth’s crust (from 50 to 100 km); there is a core that is in liquid form (diameter no more than 400 km); there is a mantle - an intermediate layer between the crust and the core. In the marine areas of the Moon, the surface is covered with rocks similar to terrestrial oceanic basalts, and in continental areas - with lighter and denser rocks. The main part of these rocks is silicon oxide (which is also typical for the Earth), followed by oxides of iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, etc. The mineralogical composition of lunar rocks is poorer than that of terrestrial rocks.
There are no minerals formed in the presence of water and oxygen. These facts indicate that there has never been a noticeable oxygen atmosphere or hydrosphere on the Moon. No organic compounds, microorganisms or other signs of life were found on the Moon. However, no compounds were found in lunar rocks that would be harmful to humans or animals and plants. Under terrestrial conditions, seeds and seedlings of plants planted in soil enriched with powdered lunar substance did not experience any inhibitory effects and developed normally, assimilating the microelements contained in this substance. American astronauts, who had direct contact with lunar matter in the ship’s cabin during the last expeditions, did not even undergo any quarantine, which, for safety reasons, was carried out after the first flights to the Moon. Studies have shown that the age of individual samples of lunar rocks reaches 4 - 4.2 billion years, which is much greater than the age of the oldest rocks discovered on Earth.
planet earth space moon
