The discoveries of Nicolaus Copernicus briefly. Development of natural sciences
In general, according to the production calendar for 2019, in the whole of the Russian Federation, Tuesday 12/31/2019 is a working day, shortened by 1 hour due to the fact that this is the eve of a non-working holiday. According to the "classic" scheme, it is preceded by two days off (Saturday 28 December and Sunday 29 December 2019) and a working Monday 30 December 2019.
However, some Heads of regions decided to make December 31, 2019 a day off, by transferring the day of rest to it from Saturday December 28, 2019. Relevant Decrees were issued, binding on regional state employees and recommendatory for all other organizations in the region.
It turned out that in some regions of the Russian Federation, some organizations work on December 28, 2019 (on Saturday) and rest on the 31st, while the other part work on December 31, 2019 (on New Year's Eve) and rest on the 28th. And there are even organizations where half of the employees enter the service on December 28, and the other half on December 31.
As a result of the confusion that has arisen, many have a question regarding Sunday, December 29, 2019 - does it end up being a working day or a day off in Russia?
We answer:
Sunday 29 December 2019 is a public holiday in Russia.
There are no transfers of weekends and working days associated with the last Sunday of 2019, the federal legislation of the Russian Federation does not provide.
But let's get back to school holidays and tell you when it starts and how many days it lasts.
Regardless of the training system (modules, trimesters or quarters), winter holidays 2019-2020 start the same way - on Saturday, December 28, 2019. In some educational institutions, a New Year's event outside the school walls may be scheduled on the first day of the holidays.
Most schools winter holidays last 12 days, until Wednesday 8 January 2020. There are schools where the vacation period is 16 days, until Sunday, January 12, 2020. From 17 to 24 February 2020 there will be a second winter vacation during trimesters, as well as during quarters for first graders. In any case, check the vacation schedule with the administration of your school.
That is, the winter holidays 2019-2020 for schoolchildren:
* when they start - from Saturday 28 December 2019
* how many days last - 12 days.
* when they end - on Wednesday, January 8, 2020
* first day of school - Thursday 9 January 2020
Here's what should be on the New Year's table in the year of the Rat:
* So, pie on the table is a must! With cabbage, meat, fish or sweet - any pie is attractive to a rodent.
* Salads can be divided into portions into tartlets.
* We recommend stuffing a baked bird (goose, duck or chicken) with rice in addition to apples and prunes, and when serving, decorate it beautifully fresh herbs and nuts.
* Considering mouse preference, don't forget salad with grated cheese or cheese slices. Lean varieties of well-cooked and thinly sliced meats can also grace the table.
* Don't forget about fruits. A vase with beautifully arranged apples, pears and grapes will please the mouse very much.
* Dishes from potatoes and carrots. The owners of cellars, who store winter stocks there, know firsthand about the love of rodents for these vegetables.
How to arrange a New Year's table for 2020:
In the design of the table give preference white color , in serving - crystal and silver cutlery. The tablecloth on the table is also desirable white, because the color of the coming year is white!According to short biography Copernicus, he was born in the Polish city of Turon in 1473. It is interesting that this city became Polish only a few years before his birth, and earlier it was a Prussian city, which was controlled by the Teutonic Knights. Copernicus early lost both parents, who belonged to the merchant class, and began to live in a family of close relatives of his mother.
In 1491, at the urging of his uncle, Copernicus entered the University of Krakow. There he studied theology, medicine, mathematics and was fond of astronomy. At the end educational institution he began to build a spiritual career (by that time his uncle had become a bishop).
In 1497 he went to the University of Bologna, where he deepened his knowledge of theology and law, and also continued to study astronomy. In 1500 he went to Rome, and then to Padua, where he continued his study of medicine at the local university.
The beginning of a spiritual career and astronomical research
In 1506 Copernicus returned to his homeland and became personal assistant and secretary to his uncle, the bishop. In addition, he began teaching at the University of Krakow, teaching a course on medicine and astronomy (he continued astronomical observations when he returned home).
In 1512 (after the death of his uncle) he went to Frombock, where he was a canon, began to work in the parish, and astronomy became something of a hobby. It was at this time that he began to create a heliocentric system of the world, which became the work of his whole life.
He worked on a global astronomical work for more than 40 years, rumors about him and his research quickly spread. There is an opinion that Pope Leo X himself drew attention to him. But Copernicus was not attracted by fame (as is usually said in his biography written for children). He worked a lot as a doctor, even took part in the aftermath of the plague in 1519, improved the life of the inhabitants of Frombok (he built a special machine that distilled water to all the houses of the city), and became involved in the Polish-Teutonic conflict, which led to the emergence of the Duchy of Prussia .
last years of life
Copernicus devoted the last five years of his life to his book on the device solar system and its publication, but he never managed to see it printed and replicated. He also worked a lot and free of charge as a doctor. In 1542, he was paralyzed, and in 1543, after several months of a coma after a stroke, he died at his home in Frombok.
Other biography options
- Interestingly, biographers have not yet decided on the national identity of the great scientist. Some believe that he was a Pole, others argue that his mother was German and Nikolai was brought up in classical German traditions.
- Nicholas had two sisters and a brother, who, like Nicholas himself, became a canon. One of the sisters went to a monastery, and the other got married. Copernicus adored his nephews and supported them as best he could until the end of his life.
- Interestingly, it was Copernicus who first spoke about the law of universal gravitation.
- Copernicus was fluent in Greek and Latin and even made literary translations.
- For a long time, the location of the scientist's grave was unknown. Only in 2005, during excavations in the Cathedral of Frombok, a grave was discovered, and DNA analysis showed that this was the grave of Copernicus (DNA analysis was made possible thanks to 2 hairs that were discovered by scientists in the Copernican manuscripts). The remains were solemnly reburied in 2010.
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in the Polish city of Torun, his father was a merchant who came from Germany. The future scientist was orphaned early, he was brought up in the house of his uncle, bishop and famous Polish humanist Lukasz Wachenrode.
In 1490, Copernicus graduated from the University of Krakow, after which he became a canon of the cathedral in the fishing town of Frombork. In 1496 he went on a long journey through Italy. Copernicus studied at the universities of Bologna, Ferrara and Padua, studied medicine and ecclesiastical law, and became a master of arts. In Bologna, the young scientist became interested in astronomy, which determined his fate.
In 1503, Nicolaus Copernicus returned to his homeland a comprehensively educated man, he first settled in Lidzbark, where he served as his uncle's secretary. After the death of his uncle, Copernicus moved to Frombork, where he did research for the rest of his life.
Social activity
Nicolaus Copernicus took an active part in the administration of the area in which he lived. He was in charge of economic and financial affairs, fought for its independence. Among his contemporaries, Copernicus was known as a statesman, a talented physician and an expert in astronomy.
When the Lutheran Council organized a calendar reform commission, Copernicus was invited to Rome. The scientist proved the prematureness of such a reform, since at that time the length of the year was not yet known exactly.
Astronomical observations and heliocentric theory
The creation of the heliocentric system was the result of many years of work by Nicolaus Copernicus. For about one and a half millennia, there was a system for organizing the world, proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy. It was believed that the Earth is at the center of the universe, and other planets and the Sun revolve around it. This theory could not explain many of the phenomena that astronomers observed, but it was in good agreement with the teachings catholic church.
Copernicus was watching the movement celestial bodies and came to the conclusion that the Ptolemaic theory was wrong. In order to prove that all the planets revolve around the Sun, and the Earth is just one of them, Copernicus carried out complex mathematical calculations and spent more than 30 years of hard work. Although the scientist mistakenly believed that all the stars are motionless and are on the surface of a huge sphere, he managed to explain the apparent movement of the Sun and the rotation of the firmament.
The results of the observations were summarized in the work of Nicolaus Copernicus "On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres", published in 1543. In it he developed new philosophical ideas and focused on improving the mathematical theory that described the movement of celestial bodies. The revolutionary nature of the scientist's views was realized by the Catholic Church later, when in 1616 his work was included in the Index of Forbidden Books.
Nicholas Copernicus- Polish and Prussian astronomer, mathematician, economist, canon of the Renaissance , author of the heliocentric system of the world.
Biography facts
Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Torun into a merchant family in 1473, he lost his parents early. There is no definite opinion about his nationality - some consider him a Pole, others - a German. His hometown became part of Poland a few years before his birth, and before that was part of Prussia. But he was brought up in the German family of his maternal uncle.
He studied at the University of Krakow, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology, but he was especially attracted to astronomy. Then he left for Italy and entered the University of Bologna, where he prepared mainly for a spiritual career, but also studied astronomy there. He studied medicine at the University of Padua. Upon returning to Krakow, he worked as a doctor, at the same time being a confidant of his uncle, Bishop Lukas.
After the death of his uncle, he lived in the small town of Frombork in Poland, where he served as a canon (priest of the Catholic Church), but did not stop studying astronomy. Here he developed the idea of a new astronomical system. He shared his thoughts with friends, so very soon word spread about the young astronomer and his new system.
Copernicus was one of the first to express the idea of universal gravitation. One of his letters says: “I think that gravity is nothing but a certain desire with which the divine Architect endowed the particles of matter so that they would unite in the form of a ball. The Sun, the Moon, and the planets probably have this property; to him these luminaries owe their spherical shape.
He confidently predicted that Venus and Mercury had phases similar to those of the Moon. After the invention of the telescope, Galileo confirmed this prediction.
It is known that talented people are talented in everything. Copernicus also showed himself to be a comprehensively educated person: according to his project, a new monetary system was introduced in Poland; in the city of Frombork, he built a hydraulic machine that supplied water to all houses. As a doctor, he fought the plague in 1519. During the Polish-Teutonic War (1519-1521), he organized the successful defense of the bishopric from the Teutons, and then took part in peace negotiations that culminated in the creation of the first Protestant state - the Duchy of Prussia.
At the age of 58, Copernicus retired from all affairs and began working on his book. "On the rotation of the heavenly spheres", at the same time treated people free of charge.
Nicolaus Copernicus died in 1543 from a stroke.
Heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus
heliocentric system- the idea that the Sun is the central celestial body around which the Earth and other planets revolve. The earth, according to this system, revolves around the sun in one sidereal year, and around its axis - in one sidereal day. This view is the opposite geocentric system of the world(the idea of the structure of the universe, according to which the central position in the Universe is occupied by the motionless Earth, around which the Sun, Moon, planets and stars revolve).
The doctrine of the heliocentric system arose even in antiquity, but became widespread from the end of the Renaissance.
The Pythagoreans, Heraclides of Pontus, had conjectures about the movement of the Earth, but a truly heliocentric system was proposed at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. Aristarchus of Samos. It is believed that Aristarchus came to heliocentrism based on the fact he established that the Sun is much larger in size. more earth(the only work of a scientist that has come down to us). It was natural to assume that the smaller body revolves around the larger one, and not vice versa. The geocentric system of the world that existed before was unable to explain the change in the apparent brightness of the planets and the apparent size of the Moon, which the Greeks correctly associated with a change in the distance to these celestial bodies. It also allowed to establish the order of the luminaries.
But after the 2nd century A.D. e. in the Hellenistic world, geocentrism was firmly established, based on the philosophy of Aristotle and the planetary theory of Ptolemy.
In the Middle Ages the heliocentric system of the world was practically forgotten. The exception is the astronomers of the Samarkand school founded by Ulugbek in the first half of the 15th century. Some of them rejected the philosophy of Aristotle as the physical foundation of astronomy and considered the rotation of the Earth around its axis as physically possible. There are indications that some of the Samarkand astronomers considered the possibility of not just the axial rotation of the Earth, but the movement of its center, and also developed a theory in which the Sun is considered to revolve around the Earth, but all the planets revolve around the Sun (which can be called the geo-heliocentric system of the world) .
In the era Early Renaissance Nicholas of Cusa wrote about the mobility of the Earth, but his judgment was purely philosophical. There were other suggestions about the movement of the Earth, but the system as such did not exist. And only in the 16th century did heliocentrism finally revive, when the Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus developed the theory of planetary motion around the Sun based on the Pythagorean principle of uniform circular motions. The result of his labors was the book "On the rotations of the celestial spheres", published in 1543. He considered the disadvantage of all geocentric theories that they do not allow to determine "the shape of the world and the proportionality of its parts", that is, the scale of the planetary system. Perhaps he proceeded from the heliocentrism of Aristarchus, but this has not been conclusively proven; in the final edition of the book, the reference to Aristarchus has disappeared.
Copernicus believed that the Earth makes three movements:
1. Around its axis with a period of one day, resulting in a daily rotation of the celestial sphere.
2. Around the Sun with a period of a year, resulting in backward motions of the planets.
3. The so-called declination movement, also with a period of approximately one year, leads to the fact that the Earth's axis moves approximately parallel to itself.
Copernicus explained the reasons for the backward motions of the planets, calculated the distances of the planets from the Sun and the periods of their revolutions. Zodiacal inequality in the movement of the planets Copernicus explained by the fact that their movement is a combination of movements in large and small circles.
Heliocentric system of Copernicus can be formulated in the following statements:
- orbits and celestial spheres do not have a common center;
- the center of the Earth is not the center of the Universe, but only the center of mass and orbit of the Moon;
- all the planets move in orbits whose center is the Sun, and therefore the Sun is the center of the world;
- the distance between the Earth and the Sun is very small compared to the distance between the Earth and the fixed stars;
- the daily motion of the Sun is imaginary, and is caused by the effect of the rotation of the Earth, which rotates once every 24 hours around its axis, which always remains parallel to itself;
- The Earth (together with the Moon, like other planets), revolves around the Sun, and therefore the movements that the Sun seems to make (the daily movement, as well as the annual movement when the Sun moves around the Zodiac) are nothing more than the effect of the Earth's movement ;
- this motion of the Earth and other planets explains their location and the specific characteristics of the motion of the planets.
These statements completely contradicted the geocentric system prevailing at that time.
The center of the planetary system for Copernicus was not the Sun, but the center of the earth's orbit;
of all the planets, the Earth was the only one that moved uniformly in its orbit, while the orbital speed of the other planets varied.
Apparently, Copernicus retained a belief in the existence of celestial spheres carrying planets. Thus, the movement of the planets around the Sun was explained by the rotation of these spheres around their axes.
Evaluation of the theory of Copernicus by contemporaries
His closest supporters for the first three decades after the publication of the book « On the rotations of the celestial spheres" was the German astronomer Georg Joachim Retik, who at one time collaborated with Copernicus, who considered himself his student, as well as the astronomer and surveyor Gemma Frisius. A friend of Copernicus, Bishop Tiedemann Giese, was also a supporter of Copernicus. But the majority of contemporaries from the theory of Copernicus “pulled out” only the mathematical apparatus for astronomical calculations and the almost complete disregard for his new, heliocentric cosmology. This may have happened because the preface to his book was written by a Lutheran theologian, and the preface said that the motion of the earth was a clever computational trick, but that Copernicus should not be taken literally. Many in the 16th century believed that this was the opinion of Copernicus himself. And only in the 70s - 90s of the XVI century. astronomers began to show interest in the new system of the world. Copernicus had both supporters (including philosopher Giordano Bruno; theologian Diego de Zuniga, who uses the concept of the Earth's motion to interpret some words of the Bible) and opponents (astronomers Tycho Brahe and Christopher Clavius, philosopher Francis Bacon).
Opponents of the Copernican system argued that if the Earth rotated around its axis, then:
- The earth would experience colossal centrifugal forces that would inevitably tear it apart.
- All light objects on its surface would be scattered in all directions of the Cosmos.
- Any thrown object would deviate towards the west, and the clouds would float, along with the Sun, from east to west.
- Celestial bodies move because they are made of weightless thin matter, but what force can make the huge heavy Earth move?
Meaning
The heliocentric system of the world, put forward in the III century BC. uh . Aristarchus and revived in the 16th century Copernicus, made it possible to establish the parameters of the planetary system and discover the laws of planetary motions. The justification of heliocentrism required the creation classical mechanics and led to the discovery of the law gravity. This theory paved the way for stellar astronomy, when it was proved that stars are distant suns) and cosmology infinite universe. Further, the heliocentric system of the world was more and more asserted - the main content of the scientific revolution of the 17th century consisted in the establishment of heliocentrism.
The scientist who discovered to the world the true interaction of celestial bodies with each other was born at the end of the 15th century. Despite the ban on his works for inconsistency with the religious beliefs of his time, the scientist's works were not lost. The great discoveries of Copernicus are the basis of school teachings and ideas about many areas of human life.
Copernicus carried out his discoveries not only in astronomy, they also affected physics, economics, mathematics, the laws of mechanics and medicine, contributing to more than one scientific revolution.
Youth
The future outstanding scientist was born in Poland, in 1473 in Torun. Born in February, the boy was the fourth child in the family and received the name Nicholas, the same name was also given to Copernicus' father. Despite the Polish origin, Nikolai's mother was a nee German. The boy's father was a merchant, which allowed the child to get a good education.
Until the age of ten, the Copernicus family lived quietly, but the outbreak of the plague claimed not only thousands of other people's lives, it also affected Copernicus Sr. The head of the family died, leaving the boy's mother as his successor. In 1489, the mother of the family also dies. Then the uncle of Nikolai, the mother's brother, takes responsibility for the children.
As a local bishop, Lukasz Wazenrode was known as a man endowed with the gift of a diplomat, an educated and well-read person. A smart relative, having a sharp temper and love for his younger nephew, became a real father for Nikolai. Seeing his successor in his nephew, Lukash gave the boy a good upbringing along with education.
Education
- The young man graduated from school at the age of fifteen. The next stage of his education took place at the Wloclawsk school. Thanks to an interesting teacher, the young student became interested in astronomy.
- At the age of eighteen, a young man comes to Krakow, having the protection of his uncle, taking his brother with him. Having entered the Jagiellonian University, famous for its brilliant educational programs, both brothers ended up in the Faculty of Arts. Thanks to the atmosphere around him, Copernicus developed critical thinking and thoroughly mastered the sciences he taught. His passion for astronomy moved to a deeper level.
- After graduating from the university at the age of twenty-four, Nikolai and his brother go to work in the diocese of their uncle as canons. In this way, the bishop teaches young people to think that on further education abroad, they need to earn their own money.
- After two years of work as a canon, Copernicus goes to Italy, where he intends to continue his studies. Lukash makes sure that his nephew gets three years' leave and a salary.
- Having entered the University of Bologna, the student chooses to study at the law school. There he masters Greek and continues to study astronomy. In addition to his passion for painting, studying abroad brings the guy an acquaintance with a scientist who revived European mathematics.
- During his stay in Italy, Copernicus makes a joint discovery with the professor, which speaks of an equal distance to the moon in square, regardless of the full moon or new moon. So Nicholas for the first time begins to doubt the veracity of Ptolemy's statements.
- Three years later, Copernicus returns to Poland. As well as after the first education, he remains without a scientific degree. Returning to the duty station, the brothers ask for an additional deferment in order to complete their education. Having received consent, in 1503 Nicholas received a doctorate in canon law. Having completed medical training during this time, Copernicus remains in Italy and practices medicine.
Merits in science
Three years later medical practice Copernicus goes to his homeland, where he works for his uncle and as a trusted doctor. After the death of the bishop, the nephew moves to a small town, where he continues to work in the church and scientific observations.
Having made an observatory in the tower of the fortress, the astronomer continues his work alone, without accepting help. By the thirtieth year of the 16th century, Copernicus completes his work, determining that the Earth revolves around the sun in a year, and around its axis in a day.
Being a fantastic idea, this thought spread the news of the astronomer throughout Europe. There was no negative response to the bold idea. However, the scientist did not rush the publication of the book, hoping to double-check his ideas and observations. The verification took about forty years, in 1543 the greatest work of the master was published. At this time, Copernicus could no longer rejoice at the news, because he was in a coma.
Death of a scientist
Nicolaus Copernicus died after two months in a coma. The scientist died in the spring of 1543 due to a stroke.
Until 2005, the tomb of Copernicus was unknown. The remains of the greatest astronomer were found by chance, as a result of excavations carried out by archaeologists. Their authenticity is established by the results of DNA examination. Five years later, the remains of Copernicus buried in the Cathedral of Frombork.
