Chinese civilization gave the world paper, a compass, gunpowder, and original cultural content. before others understood the importance of teaching among the bureaucracy, before other countries realized the importance of transmitting scientific knowledge, and already in the early Middle Ages stood on the threshold of capitalism. Modern researchers tend to explain such successes by the fact that Chinese spiritual life did not have a strict religious line throughout its history. While church dogmas dictated the laws of God to the Western world, China was developing a unique socio-cultural worldview. Main philosophical teaching, which replaced political ideology and religious accompaniment became Confucianism.

The term "Confucianism" is of European origin. Missionaries of the Old World at the end of the 16th century named the dominant socio-political system of China after its founder - Kung Fu-tzu (teacher from the Kun family). In the Chinese tradition, the philosophical movement founded by Confucius is called the “school of educated people,” which explains its essence much better.

In ancient China, local officials were appointed, so statesmen who lost their positions often became itinerant teachers, forced to earn money by teaching ancient scriptures. Educated people settled in favorable territories, where they subsequently formed famous schools and the first proto-universities. During the Chunqiu period, there were especially many wandering teachers in the kingdom of Lu, which became the birthplace of Confucius (551–479 BC) and his teachings.

The period of fragmentation in the history of China became the flowering of philosophical movements of various directions. The ideas of the “100 schools” developed without much competition with each other, until the Celestial Empire set the ship of history on the course of strengthening feudalization.

Confucian values

The philosophy of Confucius arose in turbulent times; all social expectations of the inhabitants of the Celestial Lands were directed in a peaceful direction. Confucian philosophy is based on the cults of the primitive period - the cult of ancestors and the veneration of the ancestor of the entire Chinese people, the legendary Shandi. The prehistoric semi-mythical ruler, bestowed by Heaven, was associated with a supreme semi-divine power. This is where the tradition of calling China “The Celestial Empire” and the ruler the “Son of Heaven” originates. Let us at least remember the famous “” in Beijing - one of the symbols of the capital of the People's Republic of China.

Initially, the teaching proceeded from the fact that the desire to live and develop is a principle underlying human essence. The main virtue, according to Confucius, is humanity (ren). This life law should determine relationships in the family and society, manifest itself in respect for elders and younger ones. To comprehend ren, a person must improve himself throughout his life, using the power of his mind to rid himself of base manifestations of character.

The meaning of human existence is to achieve the highest degree of social justice, which can be achieved by developing in oneself positive traits, following the path of self-development (Tao). The embodiment of Tao in a particular person can be judged by his virtues. A person who has reached the heights of Tao becomes an ideal of morality - a “noble husband.” He has access to harmony with himself and nature, the world and the cosmos.

Confucius believed that for each family separately and single state In general, the rules are the same - “the state is big family, and the family is a small state.” The thinker believed that the state was created to protect every person, therefore the people's happiness depends on the prestige of monarchical power. Following ancient traditions helps to bring harmony to the social structure, even in the face of material and natural difficulties. “Man can expand the Tao, but not the Tao of man.”

Belief in the afterlife was more a tribute to filial respect for older relatives than a religious cult. Confucius believed that strict observance of rituals and customs helps society to be more resistant to social upheavals, helps to understand historical experience and preserve the wisdom of ancestors. Hence the doctrine of the correction of names, which states that “a sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject must be a subject, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” A person’s behavior determines his position and marital status.

The great thinker Confucius, relying on semi-mythical antiquity and unstable modernity, created a philosophical system for his country that directed the people's will along the path of development and prosperity. His worldview found a response in the faces of his contemporaries and in the souls of subsequent generations. Confucianism was not a strict set of rules, but turned out to be flexible, capable of surviving millennia, absorbing new knowledge, and transforming for the benefit of all inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom.

After the death of the wisest teacher from the Kun family, his teaching was continued to be developed by his students and followers. Already in the 3rd century BC. e. There were about 10 different Confucian schools.

The Historical Path of Confucianism

The traditions of the “school of educated people” were laid down in the heyday of ancient Chinese philosophy in an era of fragmentation. The unification of the state under the imperial hand required strict territorial and cultural centralization. The first ruler of a united China, the Great Qin Shi Huang (creator), to strengthen his power, built not only on the border, but also in the minds of his subjects. Legalism was given priority as the main ideology. And the bearers of Confucian philosophy, according to legend, were brutally persecuted.

But the next Han dynasty relied on Confucianism. Numerous followers ancient wisdom were able to restore lost texts from oral sources. Different interpretations The speeches of Confucius created a number of related teachings based on ancient traditions. From the second century, Confucianism became the official ideology of the Celestial Empire; from that time on, to be Chinese meant to be a Confucian by birth and upbringing. Every official is required to pass an exam on knowledge of traditional Confucian values. Such an examination was carried out for more than a thousand years, during which a whole ritual developed that lasted until the 20th century. The best candidates confirmed their knowledge of the legendary by passing the main exam in the presence of the emperor.

The doctrine of man's striving for virtue did not create obstacles to the parallel development of various religious and philosophical systems. Starting from the 4th century, it began to penetrate Chinese society. Interaction with new realities, the cultural assimilation of the Indian religion, the addition of the worldview system of Taoist schools, led to the birth of a new philosophical direction - neo-Confucianism.

From the middle of the 6th century, a tendency began to develop towards strengthening the cult of Confucius and the deification of the power of the emperor. A decree was issued on the construction of a temple in honor of the ancient thinker in every city, which created a number of interesting ones. At this stage, the religious overtones in treatises based on the work of Confucius begin to intensify.

The modern version of post-Neo-Confucianism is the collective work of many authors.

Chinese philosophy

In the period from the U-III centuries. BC e. Chinese philosophy is further developing. This is the period of the emergence of “one hundred philosophical schools,” among which a special place was occupied by: Taoism (Lao Tzu and Zhuang Tzu), Confucianism (Confucius), the Mohist school (Mo Tzu), and Legalism - the school of legalists (Shang Yang). Let's look at ancient Chinese schools. Let's look at the table (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Taoism

The central idea of ​​Taoism was the theory of Tao. Lao Tzu (604 BC-?) is considered the founder of Taoism. The Chinese word "Tao" has many meanings: Great Path, the path of the stars and the path of virtues, the Law of the Universe and human behavior. It is the real basis of all objects and natural phenomena; it is usually translated as “the way” or the law of the world, the cosmos. Lao Tzu's main work was the Tao Te Ching (Teaching of Tao and Te). Where Tao is the essence of being, and Te is virtue, a manifestation of Tao.

Lao Tzu's philosophy draws attention to the unity of man and heaven. Lao Tzu believed that in the world there is a single path (Tao) common to all things, which no one can change. The highest duty and destiny of man, as the founder of Taoism argued, is to follow the Tao. Man is unable to influence the world order; his destiny is peace and humility. The goal of Lao Tzu's teachings was self-deepening, achieving spiritual purification, and mastering the physicality. According to Taoist theory, a person should not interfere with natural course events change it. The basic principle of Taoism is the theory of non-action "wuwei". Lao Tzu rejected the ethical principles of Confucius, calling for humility and compassion. The source of evil and all troubles is that a person deviates from the laws established by nature. The highest virtue is inaction and silence.

According to the doctrine of cosmogony (the doctrine of the origin of the cosmos), Taoism comes from the fact that Qi is considered the substantial basis of being. It is from Qi that two opposing forces, Yin and Yang, are released, which form the five elements: Fire, Earth, Metal, Water, Wood and, accordingly, all things consisting of these elements. The dialectic of Yin and Yang looks like this (see diagram 14).

Existence is understood as a constant cycle of elements (see diagram 15).

So schematically (see diagram 16) you can depict the relationship of the five elements and organs.

Confucianism

Another important theme of Chinese philosophical thought was the idea of ​​moral improvement through observance of rules and rituals, as expounded in Confucianism. The founder of this philosophical concept was Confucius (551-479 BC). The most important source of philosophical knowledge in China is considered to be ancient books, primarily: 1) “The Book of Changes” (“I Ching”); 2) “Conversations and Sayings” (“Lun Yu”), representing the sayings of Confucius.

The main problems of the philosophy of Confucius.

• 1. System of ethical standards.
• 2. Political issues.
• 3. Personal behavior.
• 4. Public management.

The main goal of his teaching is to promote the well-being of society, to create a perfect ideal state. The highest values ​​should be patriarchal and state traditions, order, service to society.

Reflecting on the fate of his society, on the imperfections of human nature, Confucius came to the conclusion that nothing positive can be achieved if one is not guided by correct principles.

Main principles of Confucianism

• - The principle of “ren” is humanity and philanthropy. “What you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others.”
• - The principle of “li” is respect and ritual. "An ill-nourished person makes demands on himself, short person makes demands on others."
• - The principle of "zheng-ming" - "correction of names." There will be order and mutual understanding between people in society if everyone behaves in accordance with their knowledge and position. "The sovereign is the sovereign, the father is the father, the son is the son."
• - The principle of “jun-tzu” - the image of a noble husband. All people are capable of being highly moral, but this is primarily the lot of the wise who engage in mental activity. The purpose of commoners is to serve the aristocratic elite led by the emperor.
• - The principle of “wen” is education, enlightenment, spirituality, combined with a love of learning and freedom from shyness in seeking advice from inferiors.
• - The principle of “di” is obedience to elders in position and age. "If a person is respectful, then he is not despised. If a person is truthful, then he is trusted. If a person is smart, he achieves success. If a person is kind, he can use others."
• - The principle of “zhong” is devotion to the sovereign, the moral authority of the government. Rulers must bring order to life through rules of conduct. “If the authorities are not greedy, then people will not steal.” In this regard, note that in ancient China, for the first time in the history of world culture, questions were raised about the methods of government. How should people be governed? What should we give priority to: ritual rules of behavior or the law? Guided by kindness or fear? Confucius was a proponent of “soft” governance based on morality and rules of behavior. The basic moral principle, the “golden rule” was: “Don’t do what you don’t want for yourself.”

Note that Confucius proposes a "golden mean" path. What does it mean? This is the way to eliminate contradictions, the art of balancing between two extremes, the art of political compromise.

The difference between Confucianism and Taoism

1. Confucianism is a rationalistic and even to some extent ethical teaching. Taoism is dominated by the mystical principle.

Confucianism addressed man as a cultural intelligent being, Taoism - as a natural being to its emotions and instincts.

In the political history of China and in the development of Chinese statehood, Legalism and Confucianism played a significant role. The difference between these philosophical concepts is that Confucianism relied on high morality and ancient traditions, while Legalism placed above all else the power of the law, the authority of which should rest on cruel punishments, absolute obedience and the conscious stupidity of the people.

Basic concepts and terms

Brahman- in ancient Indian religious and philosophical literature, spiritual substance, impersonal spirituality, from which the weight came.

Buddha- a person with an awakened, enlightened consciousness.

Veda- An ancient Indian sacred text that is sacred to the Vedic religion, Brahmanism and Hinduism.

Hylozoism- (Greek hule - substance, aphids - life) is a philosophical phenomenon that attributes the ability of sensation and thinking to all forms of matter.

Taoism- religious and philosophical teaching of China, founder - Lao Tzu.

Confucianism- philosophical, ethical teaching of China, the founder of which was Confucius.

Upanishads(from Sanskrit - sit next to the teacher) - religious and philosophical comments on the Vedas.

Confucianism- a religious and philosophical system that formed in China in the 6th century BC, the founder of which was Confucius (Kun Tzu).

The influence of Confucianism on Chinese civilization can hardly be overestimated - more than two thousand years this philosophical, religious and ethical teaching regulated all aspects of Chinese life, starting from family relations and ending with the state administrative structure. Unlike most other world religious doctrines, Confucianism is characterized not by mysticism and metaphysical abstractions, but strict rationalism, putting the state benefit above all and priority of general interests over private ones. There is no clergy here, as for example in Christianity; its place was taken by officials performing administrative functions, which included religious functions.

Kugzi 551-479 BC (known in Europe as Confucius) lived in time of crisis for China. The central government was greatly weakened, brutal civil strife reigned, during which a fierce war of all against all was waged, the participants of which did not disdain anything while fighting for power. If we add to this the increased corruption of officials and the suffering of the common people, then the meaning of the ancient Chinese curse will become clear." so that you live in an era of change".

Confucius contrasted the contemporary negative situation with authority of antiquity, which was presented as " golden age". Further reverence for legendary antiquity, when the rulers were wise, the officials were selfless and loyal, and the people lived in abundance, became the basis of Confucianism.

Jun Tzu- the image of a perfect person created by Confucius in contrast to the mores that reigned during his life. The main virtues of Junzi were humanity and sense of duty. Humanity (ren) consisted of a whole complex of qualities, including modesty, justice, restraint, dignity, selflessness, love for people, etc. Sense of duty(s) - the need to act in accordance with higher principles, and not to pursue personal gain: " A noble man thinks about duty, a low man cares about profit". An equally important concept was loyalty and sincerity(zheng), observance of ceremonies and rituals(li). It was the ritual side that became one of the most noticeable manifestations of Confucianism, just remember the saying " Chinese ceremonies"The higher the position in the social hierarchy a person occupied, the more he was entangled in conventions various rituals, often brought to the point of automation.

social order, which, according to Confucius, corresponded to the ideal - can be characterized by the quote " Let the father be the father, the son the son, the sovereign the sovereign, the official the official", that is, everyone should be in their place and strive to fulfill their duties as correctly as possible. Society according to Confucius should consist of the top and bottom. The top should be engaged in management, the purpose of which is the well-being of the people. Great importance had the concept " xiao" - filial piety, which in a broader sense was interpreted as the subordination of younger people to elders. An example of practical application " xiao"- in medieval China, by law, a son could not testify against his father, and according to the ethical standards of Confucianism, a virtuous son, if a parent committed a crime, could only exhort him to return to the path of truth. There are many positive examples in Confucian treatises" xiao", for example, a poor man who sold his son to feed his mother dying of hunger, etc.

The spread of Confucianism resulted in the rise of the cult of family and clan. The priority of the interests of the family over the interests of the individual was unshakable. All issues were resolved based on the benefit for the family, and everything personal and emotional was removed into the background and not taken into account. As an example, a grown-up son was married solely by the decision of his parents; such a concept as love was not considered.

The religious side of Confucianism is associated with cult of ancestor worship. Each family had a family temple of their ancestors with burial and temple lands, the alienation of which was unacceptable.

One of the main reasons that led to the spread of Confucianism in China was that Confucians not only concentrated the management of the state and society, but also paid great attention to upbringing and education. This led to Confucianism becoming widespread, every Chinese youth lived in a Confucian atmosphere, acted only in accordance with accepted rites and rituals. Even if a Chinese later became a Buddhist, Taoist or Christian, in the depths of his nature, even sometimes without realizing it, he thought and behaved like a Confucian.

Education consisted of learning to read and write, knowledge of written canons and classical Confucian works. Thanks to the widespread spread of Confucianism in medieval China, literates had great authority and social status . The cult of literacy flourished in the country; the literate layer in China played the same role that the nobility, clergy and bureaucracy combined played in other civilizations. Educated person had to know ancient texts well, operate with the sayings of the sages and independently write essays consistent with the canons of Confucianism. Giving a son an education is the dream of every Chinese family, but few could realize it. The difficulty of learning to read hieroglyphs and understand ancient texts required many years of hard work. But the reward for work was very tempting. After passing the examination system, every literate person could enter the class shenshi, which gave him a number of privileges. The first examination stage was called xiu-tsai, it took place over two to three days. During this time, under the watchful supervision of the examiners, the examinee had to write a short poem, an essay about some ancient event, as well as a treatise on an abstract topic. Only 2-3% of applicants successfully passed the exam. Next steps Junren and Jinshi suggested an even stricter selection. Those who passed the most difficult exam could count on high positions in the bureaucratic system, honor and wealth. Even those who passed the first and second stages enjoyed great respect from others and could apply for secondary positions. Degree holders and their applicants automatically fell into a special Shenshi class, which occupied the place of the ruling class in medieval China. It is important to note that the path to Shenshi was based only on knowledge and hard work- wealth and social status did not play a decisive role in this. This ensured the mobility of this social group, attracted to it the most persistent and talented in mastering Confucian knowledge.

The twentieth century marked the end of the unquestioned authority of Confucianism in China. After the revolution, Confucianism was identified with feudalism and, as such, was subjected to devastating criticism. Representatives of Chinese anarchism played an important role in the criticism of Confucianism.

CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY

Introduction

1 Human life is the main subject of Confucianism

2 Celestial Empire as the main condition human life

3 Confucianism about knowledge

4 Historical development of Confucianism and the problem of man

Literature

INTRODUCTION

Confucianism, actually Ru-chia (literally - the school of scribes), is one of the most influential philosophical and religious movements China. Founded by Confucius (Latin version), Kun Tzu (Chinese version), i.e. teacher Kun. Other names: Kong Fuzi; Kun Qiu, Kun Zhongni.

Confucius was born in 551(2) BC. His father was the great warrior of his time, famous for his exploits Shu Lianhe. When the boy was two years and three months old (the Chinese count the age of a child from the moment of conception), his father died. Shu Lianhe's two previous wives, who hated the heir's young mother, did not restrain their hatred of her, and the woman returned to her hometown. The boy grew up, differing from his peers in his heightened perception of injustice, a feeling of special love for his parents, and knowledge of many religious rituals (his mother, fulfilling the duty of a wife, read prayers for her deceased husband every day). Confucius knew the history of his family, dating back centuries. Having learned about the experience of his ancestors, among whom there were talented people who showed themselves in many areas of human activity, he concluded that military valor alone is not enough to achieve what he wants, other virtues are also needed.

When Confucius was seventeen years old, his mother died. With great difficulty, he searches for his father’s grave (neither he nor even his mother were allowed to accompany Shu Lianhe to the elder wives). last way) and, in accordance with religious rites, buried his mother nearby. Having fulfilled his filial duty, the young man returns home and lives alone.

Because of poverty, he was forced to even women's work, which he used to do deceased mother. Different sources report differently on how Confucius treated work that did not correspond to his origin, but it is more likely that he did not experience an aversion to “low” work. At the same time, Confucius remembered his belonging to the upper strata of society and intensively engaged in self-education. Later he would say: “At the age of fifteen I turned my thoughts to study. At the age of thirty I gained independence. At the age of forty I freed myself from doubts; at the age of sixty I learned to distinguish truth from falsehood. At the age of seventy I began to follow the desires of my heart and did not violate the ritual." Fate, as if in compensation for the unsuccessful beginning of his life, endowed him with health, remarkable strength, and natural intelligence. At nineteen, he marries the girl who accompanied him all his life, and soon they have a son.

From his youth, Confucius was tormented by the thought of reorganizing Chinese society, creating an ideal, fair state where everyone would be happy. Trying to make his idea a reality, he traveled widely around the country, offering his services as a minister to Chinese kings and princes. Confucius was engaged in reforms public life, army, finance, culture, but not one of his undertakings was ever completed - either due to the sophistication of the idea itself, or as a result of the opposition of his enemies. Wisdom gained Confucius great fame, and people from all over the country began to flock to him, wanting to become his students. Traveling from one kingdom to another, Confucius lamented: “There was not a single ruler who wanted to become my student.” The sage died in April 478(9) BC. with the words: “Who, after my death, will take the trouble to continue my teaching?” The teachings of Confucius were recorded by his students in the book “Conversations and Sayings.” Big influence The formation of Confucianism was influenced by the philosophers Mencius (372-289 BC) and Xunzi (313-238 BC).

1 Human life is the main subject of Confucianism

Confucians are primarily social activists and humanists. The school of Confucius taught: morality, language, politics and literature. Main characteristics Schools and directions of Confucius can be defined as principled traditionalism. Confucius himself said about his teaching: “I expound the old and do not create the new.”

From natural phenomena Confucians are only interested in the sky, as the highest power that controls earthly life. Moreover, the characteristic “to be control force" - an incomparably more significant characteristic of the sky for Confucians than its naturalness. This governing force bears little resemblance to the creator god of Western religions. Heaven is not outside the world, but above the world, which, despite all the hardships, is not “a vale of sorrow and sin,” but the Celestial Empire. Heaven is fate, rock, the Tao of the Celestial Empire. Heaven is the law.

The main problem for Confucius is the rationalization of the cult of ancestors common to all Chinese culture. Confucius makes an attempt, paradoxical from the point of view of a European and natural for a Chinese, to preserve tradition, making it a little less a tradition and a little more a justified belief. What is commanded by tradition must be deeply rooted in a person through careful personal reflection on it. It is important to consciously and not blindly follow the rules established in the Celestial Empire. A person must live with dignity, and this will be the best way follow the ancestors. And, on the contrary, for the sake of your worthy life, you need to follow what was commanded since ancient times.

This problem sounds in Confucius in the form of a question: “Without learning to serve people, can you serve spirits?” Man is predetermined by everything purely human, and it is unnatural to “bury his head in the sand of heavenly and spiritualistic affairs”, “wander outside the world of dust and dirt.” Everything secret and inexpressible is beyond the boundaries of human consideration: the essence of heaven and Tao, the mystery of birth and death, the essence of the divine and supreme. But a person’s life, with its real course, is his business. “Without yet knowing what life is, how can one know what death is?” - asks Confucius. And a person can and must know what life is in order to be a human being and a worthy person.

Life is service to people. This is the most important and fundamental ethical idea of ​​Confucianism, determining both its advantages and disadvantages. Focusing on a detailed examination of “service to people,” both moral and state, Confucianism does not feel the need for distractions, abstractions, etc. Their place is taken by a thorough “analysis” of the generally accepted rules for organizing people’s lives.

Confucius's area of ​​thought was primarily practical morality. The main ethical concepts-commandments on which this reflection is based: “reciprocity”, “philanthropy”, “golden mean”. In general, they constitute the “right path” - the Tao, which should be followed by anyone who strives to live in harmony with himself, other people and Heaven, and therefore live happily.

“Reciprocity” is love for people, as initial friendliness, openness, cordiality, politeness towards the person with whom you enter into communication; love for one's neighbor in the truest sense of the word. The moral attitude “toward those who are distant” is “philanthropy.” This is love and respect for man in general and for human standards of life. Therefore, “philanthropy” presupposes, first of all, deference and respect towards parents, and in general, elders and those standing higher on the social ladder. The rule of the “golden mean” presupposes the ability to find a balance between intemperance and caution. Fulfilling these commandments allows you to implement the main ethical principle: do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself.

These commandments can be fulfilled through the five “simple and great” virtues: 1. wisdom, 2. mercy (humaneness), 3. fidelity, 4. reverence for elders, 5. courage. Possessing these virtues practically means being conscientious and having deep respect for yourself and others. And this is the main thing in the manifestation of philanthropy and mercy, which in Confucianism almost coincide.

Mercy is the essence of philanthropy. It occurs when a person has a “heart like people,” a heart that lives according to the rules of people and is therefore “sweet.” Mercy - unusual shape love, “sublimation” (using a modern term) of the directly experienced feeling of sympathy, cordiality. Mercy is rooted in this immediate feeling, but goes far beyond it. Mercy is the joy of life, the wisdom of kindness, a good and calm conscience. “He who knows is far from being a lover, and he who loves is far from being joyful.” In this capacity, mercy becomes a moral imperative, possibly having enormous social benefits. “The merciful finds peace in mercy, the wise finds benefit in mercy.” In addition, mercy, the most important “supporting structure” of the Celestial Empire, is a force that is the antipode of evil in the world.

Through the concepts of mercy, the ethical coordinates of human life naturally flow into social coordinates. The political structure of human life is determined by the degree of implementation of mercy in people's lives. According to Confucians, only selected and full-fledged people are capable of mercy, that is, they have “a heart like that of people,” the heart of those who are worthy to be called human. It is on these people that the social order and hierarchy of the Celestial Empire rests.

A person capable of mercy and following the commandments is a “noble man,” and he differs sharply from a “low man” for whom mercy is unattainable. “Noble man” and “low man” are both ethical and political concepts. Only one who fulfills the commandments and exercises mercy can be a worthy high dignitary and sovereign, since he exactly corresponds to the name “sovereign.” “If the sovereign treats his relatives properly, then philanthropy flourishes among the people.” The morality of a noble husband gives him the right to rule. If the top behaves properly, then “people with children behind their backs will come towards them from all four sides.”

The desire for order and law, the focus on harmonizing all levels of existence, the importance of continuity of spiritual tradition, pedagogical and moral ideas are the basic components of the philosophy of Confucianism, the founder of which is the famous Chinese sage Confucius (Kun Tzu).

Confucianism and Tao

To a European, the teaching may seem simple and understandable, especially when compared with Taoism (the ancestor is Lao Tzu), but this is a superficial point of view. Chinese thinking is characterized by syncretism, and it is no coincidence that in the tradition there is a figurative comparison of Taoism with the heart, and Confucianism with the flesh: this emphasizes their closeness and mutual complementarity.

Both teachings are focused on the ancient Tao - the prototype of the ideal existence of the Universe. The differences lie in views on methods of cultural restoration. The philosophy of Confucianism combines reverence for antiquity with an orientation toward the future. The main goal is defined as the creation of a new person in a renewed society.

An important point: Confucius did not deal specifically and outside the holistic meaning of his philosophy with issues of state building. Mystical knowledge was brought to the level of secular government of the country. A Chinese sage becomes a politician to bring the Celestial Empire to harmony.

To solve this problem, according to Confucius, it is necessary to harmonize both the process of spiritual improvement of each person and the system of government with wu chang / wu xing (five constants / five movements) - the archetype of Tao. The central element of this archetype is li (ritual).

The meaning of ritual in Confucianism

The sacred essence of the ritual is the core moment of the teaching. Gestures and words verified according to ritual canons are not mechanized reproduction of elements ancient tradition, but inclusion in the rhythms of the Universe.

Figuratively, the philosophy of Confucianism considers ritual as a musical mood for deep essence life. Every second of human existence must reproduce the integrity of existence.

Ritual canons are associated with wen (culture). They are playing important role in the process of restoring the spiritual tradition of the past. They perform a restraining function: they bring all human affects to he (consent) and combine diverse elements of culture into a holistic organism.

The ritual appears in Confucianism simultaneously in three forms:

• as a principle of hierarchical organization of existence;
• a form of symbolic thinking;
• a way of structuring social life.

The philosophy of Confucius underlies the modern Chinese tradition. According to oriental scientists, the reason for the popularity of the teaching is simple: the sage constantly pointed out the presence of a universal order in the Universe, which accepts both the spiritual and the material, the individual and society, man and nature.

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