German armor of the 16th century for knight and horse

The field of weapons and armor is surrounded by romantic legends, monstrous myths and widespread misconceptions. Their sources are often a lack of knowledge and experience of communicating with real things and their history. Most of these ideas are absurd and based on nothing.

Perhaps one of the most notorious examples is the belief that “knights had to be mounted by crane,” which is as absurd as it is a common belief, even among historians. In other cases, certain technical details that defy obvious description have become the object of passionate and fantastically inventive attempts to explain their purpose. Among them, the first place seems to be occupied by the spear rest, protruding from the right side of the breastplate.

The following text will attempt to correct the most popular misconceptions and answer questions often asked during museum tours.

Misconceptions and questions about armor

1. Only knights wore armor

This erroneous but common belief probably stems from the romantic idea of ​​the “knight in shining armor,” a picture that itself gives rise to further misconceptions. First, knights rarely fought alone, and armies in the Middle Ages and Renaissance did not consist entirely of mounted knights. Although the knights were the dominant force in most of these armies, they were invariably - and increasingly over time - supported (and countered) by foot soldiers such as archers, pikemen, crossbowmen and firearms soldiers. On campaign, the knight depended on a group of servants, squires and soldiers to provide armed support and look after his horses, armor and other equipment, not to mention the peasants and artisans who made a feudal society with a warrior class possible.

Armor for a knight's duel, late 16th century

Secondly, it is wrong to believe that every noble man was a knight. Knights were not born, knights were created by other knights, feudal lords or sometimes priests. And under certain conditions, people of non-noble birth could be knighted (although knights were often considered the lowest rank of nobility). Sometimes mercenaries or civilians who fought as ordinary soldiers could be knighted for demonstrating extreme bravery and courage, and later knighthood could be purchased for money.

In other words, the ability to wear armor and fight in armor was not the prerogative of knights. Infantry from mercenaries, or groups of soldiers consisting of peasants, or burghers (city dwellers) also took part in armed conflicts and accordingly protected themselves with armor of varying quality and size. Indeed, burghers (of a certain age and above a certain income or wealth) in most medieval and Renaissance cities were required - often by law and decrees - to purchase and store their own weapons and armor. Usually it was not full armor, but at least it included a helmet, body protection in the form of chain mail, cloth armor or a breastplate, and a weapon - a spear, pike, bow or crossbow.

Indian chain mail of the 17th century

In times of war, these militias were required to defend the city or perform military duties for feudal lords or allied cities. During the 15th century, when some rich and influential cities began to become more independent and self-reliant, even the burghers organized their own tournaments, in which they, of course, wore armor.

Because of this, not every piece of armor has ever been worn by a knight, and not every person depicted wearing armor will be a knight. It would be more correct to call a man in armor a soldier or a man in armor.

2. Women in the old days never wore armor or fought in battles.

In most historical periods there is evidence of women taking part in armed conflicts. There is evidence of noble ladies turning into military commanders, such as Joan of Penthièvre (1319–1384). There are rare references to women from lower society who stood “under the gun.” There are records of women fighting in armor, but no contemporary illustrations of this topic survive. Joan of Arc (1412–1431) will perhaps be the most famous example of a female warrior, and there is evidence that she wore armor commissioned for her by King Charles VII of France. But only one small illustration of her, made during her lifetime, has reached us, in which she is depicted with a sword and banner, but without armor. The fact that contemporaries perceived a woman commanding an army, or even wearing armor, as something worthy of recording suggests that this spectacle was the exception and not the rule.

3. The armor was so expensive that only princes and rich nobles could afford it.

This idea may have originated from the fact that most of The armor exhibited in museums is high quality equipment, and most of the simpler armor that belonged to ordinary people and the lowest of the nobles was hidden in storage or lost through the centuries.

Indeed, with the exception of obtaining armor on the battlefield or winning a tournament, acquiring armor was a very expensive undertaking. However, since there were differences in the quality of armor, there must have been differences in their cost. Armor of low and medium quality, available to burghers, mercenaries and the lower nobility, could be bought ready-made at markets, fairs and city stores. On the other hand, there was also high-class armor, made to order in imperial or royal workshops and from famous German and Italian gunsmiths.

Armor of King Henry VIII of England, 16th century

Although we have extant examples of the cost of armor, weapons and equipment in some of the historical periods, it is very difficult to translate historical costs into modern analogues. It is clear, however, that the cost of armor ranged from inexpensive, low-quality or obsolete, second-hand items available to citizens and mercenaries, to the cost of the full armor of an English knight, which in 1374 was estimated at £16. This was analogous to the cost of 5-8 years of rent for a merchant's house in London, or three years of salary for an experienced worker, and the price of a helmet alone (with a visor, and probably with an aventail) was more than the price of a cow.

At the higher end of the scale one finds examples such as a large suit of armor (a basic suit that, with the help of additional items and plates, could be adapted for various uses, both on the battlefield and in tournament), commissioned in 1546 by the German king (later - Emperor) for his son. Upon completion of this order, for a year of work, the court armorer Jörg Seusenhofer from Innsbruck received an incredible sum of 1200 gold coins, equivalent to twelve annual salaries of a senior court official.

4. The armor is extremely heavy and greatly limits the mobility of its wearer.

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A full set of combat armor usually weighs from 20 to 25 kg, and a helmet - from 2 to 4 kg. It's less than full equipment a firefighter with oxygen equipment, or what modern soldiers have had to carry into battle since the nineteenth century. Moreover, while modern equipment usually hangs from the shoulders or waist, the weight of well-fitted armor is distributed over the entire body. Only to XVII century The weight of combat armor was greatly increased to make it bulletproof due to the increased accuracy of firearms. At the same time, full armor became increasingly rare, and only important parts of the body: the head, torso and arms were protected by metal plates.

The opinion that wearing armor (which took shape by 1420-30) greatly reduced the mobility of a warrior is not true. The armor equipment was made from separate elements for each limb. Each element consisted of metal plates and plates connected by movable rivets and leather straps, which allowed any movement without restrictions imposed by the rigidity of the material. The widespread idea that a man in armor could barely move, and having fallen to the ground, could not get up, has no basis. On the contrary, historical sources tell of the famous French knight Jean II le Mengre, nicknamed Boucicault (1366–1421), who, dressed in full armor, could, by grabbing the steps of a ladder from below, on the reverse side, climb it using only hands Moreover, there are several illustrations from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in which soldiers, squires or knights, in full armor, mount horses without assistance or any equipment, without ladders or cranes. Modern experiments with real armor of the 15th and 16th centuries and with their exact copies showed that even an untrained person in properly selected armor can climb on and off a horse, sit or lie down, and then get up from the ground, run and move his limbs freely and without discomfort.

In some exceptional cases, the armor was very heavy or held the wearer in almost one position, for example, in some types of tournaments. Tournament armor was made for special occasions and was worn for a limited time. A man in armor would then climb onto the horse with the help of a squire or a small ladder, and the last elements of the armor could be put on him after he was settled in the saddle.

5. Knights had to be placed in the saddle using cranes

This idea appears to have originated in the late nineteenth century as a joke. It entered popular fiction in subsequent decades, and the picture was eventually immortalized in 1944, when Laurence Olivier used it in his film King Henry V, despite the protests of historical advisers, including such eminent authorities as James Mann, chief armorer of the Tower of London.

As stated above, most armor was light and flexible enough not to bind the wearer. Most people wearing armor should have no problem being able to place one foot in the stirrup and saddle a horse without assistance. A stool or the help of a squire would speed up this process. But the crane was absolutely unnecessary.

6. How did people in armor go to the toilet?

One of the most popular questions, especially among young museum visitors, unfortunately, does not have an exact answer. When the man in armor was not busy in battle, he did the same things that people do today. He would go to the toilet (which in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance was called a privy or latrine) or other secluded place, remove the appropriate pieces of armor and clothing and surrender to the call of nature. On the battlefield, everything should have happened differently. In this case, the answer is unknown to us. However, it must be taken into account that the desire to go to the toilet in the heat of battle was most likely low on the list of priorities.

7. The military salute came from the gesture of raising the visor

Some believe that the military salute originated during the Roman Republic, when contract killing was the order of the day, and citizens were required to raise their right hand when approaching officials to show that they were not carrying a concealed weapon. The more common belief is that the modern military salute came from men in armor raising the visors of their helmets before saluting their comrades or lords. This gesture made it possible to recognize a person, and also made him vulnerable and at the same time demonstrated that in his right hand(in which the sword was usually held) there were no weapons. These were all signs of trust and good intentions.

Although these theories sound intriguing and romantic, there is virtually no evidence that the military salute originated from them. As for Roman customs, it would be virtually impossible to prove that they lasted fifteen centuries (or were restored during the Renaissance) and led to the modern military salute. There is also no direct confirmation of the visor theory, although it is more recent. Most military helmets after 1600 were no longer equipped with visors, and after 1700 helmets were rarely worn on European battlefields.

One way or another, military records in 17th century England reflect that “the formal act of greeting was the removal of headdress.” By 1745, the English regiment of the Coldstream Guards appears to have perfected this procedure, making it "putting the hand to the head and bowing upon meeting."

Coldstream Guards

Other English regiments adopted this practice, and it may have spread to America (during the Revolutionary War) and continental Europe (during the Napoleonic Wars). So the truth may lie somewhere in the middle, in which the military salute evolved from a gesture of respect and politeness, paralleling the civilian habit of raising or touching the brim of a hat, perhaps with a combination of the warrior custom of showing the unarmed right hand.

8. Chain mail – “chain mail” or “mail”?

German chain mail of the 15th century

A protective garment consisting of interlocking rings should properly be called “mail” or “mail armor” in English. The common term "chain mail" is a modern pleonasm (a linguistic error meaning using more words than necessary to describe it). In our case, “chain” and “mail” describe an object consisting of a sequence of intertwined rings. That is, the term “chain mail” simply repeats the same thing twice.

As with other misconceptions, the roots of this error should be sought in the 19th century. When those who began to study armor looked at medieval paintings, they noticed, as it seemed to them, many different types armor: rings, chains, ring bracelets, scale armor, small plates, etc. As a result, all ancient armor was called “mail”, distinguishing it only by its appearance, which is where the terms “ring-mail”, “chain-mail”, “banded mail”, “scale-mail”, “plate-mail” came from. Today, it is generally accepted that most of these different images were just different attempts by artists to correctly depict the surface of a type of armor that is difficult to capture in painting and sculpture. Instead of depicting individual rings, these details were stylized using dots, strokes, squiggles, circles and other things, which led to errors.

9. How long did it take to make a full suit of armor?

It is difficult to answer this question unambiguously for many reasons. First, there is no surviving evidence that can paint a complete picture for any of the periods. From around the 15th century, scattered examples survive of how armor was ordered, how long orders took, and how much various pieces of armor cost. Secondly, a complete armor could consist of parts made by various armorers with a narrow specialization. Armor parts could be sold unfinished and then customized locally for a certain amount. Finally, the matter was complicated by regional and national differences.

In the case of German gunsmiths, most workshops were controlled by strict guild rules that limited the number of apprentices, thereby controlling the number of items that one master and his workshop could produce. In Italy, on the other hand, there were no such restrictions and workshops could grow, which improved the speed of creation and the quantity of products.

In any case, it is worth keeping in mind that the production of armor and weapons flourished during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Gunsmiths, manufacturers of blades, pistols, bows, crossbows and arrows were present in any large city. As now, their market depended on supply and demand, and effective work was a key parameter for success. The common myth that simple chain mail took several years to make is nonsense (but it cannot be denied that chain mail was very labor-intensive to make).

The answer to this question is simple and elusive at the same time. The production time for armor depended on several factors, for example, the customer, who was entrusted with the production of the order (the number of people in production and the workshop busy with other orders), and the quality of the armor. Two famous examples will serve to illustrate this.

In 1473, Martin Rondel, possibly an Italian gunsmith working in Bruges who called himself "armourer to my bastard of Burgundy", wrote to his English client, Sir John Paston. The armorer informed Sir John that he could fulfill the request for the production of armor as soon as the English knight informed him which parts of the costume he needed, in what form, and the time frame by which the armor should be completed (unfortunately, the armorer did not indicate possible deadlines ). In the court workshops, the production of armor for high-ranking persons appears to have taken more time. The court armorer Jörg Seusenhofer (with a small number of assistants) apparently took more than a year to make the armor for the horse and the large armor for the king. The order was made in November 1546 by King (later Emperor) Ferdinand I (1503–1564) for himself and his son, and was completed in November 1547. We do not know whether Seusenhofer and his workshop were working on other orders at this time.

10. Armor details - spear support and codpiece

Two parts of the armor most spark the public's imagination: one is described as "that thing sticking out to the right of the chest," and the second is referred to, after muffled giggles, as "that thing between the legs." In weapon and armor terminology they are known as the spear rest and codpiece.

The spear support appeared shortly after the appearance of the solid chest plate at the end of the 14th century and existed until the armor itself began to disappear. Contrary to the literal meaning of the English term "lance rest", its main purpose was not to bear the weight of the spear. It was actually used for two purposes, which are better described by the French term "arrêt de cuirasse" (spear restraint). It allowed the mounted warrior to hold the spear firmly under his right hand, preventing it from slipping back. This allowed the spear to be stabilized and balanced, which improved aim. In addition, the combined weight and speed of the horse and rider were transferred to the tip of the spear, which made this weapon very formidable. If the target was hit, the spear rest also acted as a shock absorber, preventing the spear from "firing" backwards, and distributing the blow across the chest plate over the entire upper torso, rather than just the right arm, wrist, elbow and shoulder. It is worth noting that on most battle armor the spear support could be folded upward so as not to interfere with the mobility of the sword hand after the warrior got rid of the spear.

The history of the armored codpiece is closely connected with its counterpart in the civilian men's suit. From the middle of the 14th century top part men's clothing began to shorten so much that it no longer covered the crotch. In those days, pants had not yet been invented, and men wore leggings clipped to their underwear or a belt, with the crotch hidden behind a hollow attached to the inside of the top edge of each leg of the leggings. At the beginning of the 16th century, they began to fill this floor and visually enlarge it. And the codpiece remained a part of the men's suit until the end of the 16th century. On armor, the codpiece as a separate plate protecting the genitals appeared in the second decade of the 16th century, and remained relevant until the 1570s. It had a thick lining on the inside and was joined to the armor at the center of the bottom edge of the shirt. Early varieties were bowl-shaped, but due to the influence of civilian costume it gradually transformed into an upward-pointing shape. It was not usually used when riding a horse, because, firstly, it would get in the way, and secondly, the armored front of the combat saddle provided sufficient protection for the crotch. The codpiece was therefore commonly used for armor intended for fighting on foot, both in war and in tournaments, and while it had some value for protection, it was used just as much for fashion.

11. Did the Vikings wear horns on their helmets?

One of the most enduring and popular images medieval warrior- the image of a Viking, which can be instantly recognized by its helmet equipped with a pair of horns. However, there is very little evidence that the Vikings ever used horns to decorate their helmets.

The earliest example of a helmet being decorated with a pair of stylized horns comes from a small group of Celtic Bronze Age helmets found in Scandinavia and what is now France, Germany and Austria. These decorations were made of bronze and could take the form of two horns or a flat triangular profile. These helmets date back to the 12th or 11th century BC. Two thousand years later, from 1250, pairs of horns gained popularity in Europe and remained one of the most commonly used heraldic symbols on helmets for battle and tournaments in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It is easy to see that the two periods indicated do not coincide with what is usually associated with the Scandinavian raids that took place from the end of the 8th to the end of the 11th centuries.

Viking helmets were usually conical or hemispherical, sometimes made from a single piece of metal, sometimes from segments held together by strips (Spangenhelm).

Many of these helmets were also equipped with face protection. The latter could take the form of a metal bar covering the nose, or a face sheet consisting of protection for the nose and two eyes, as well as the upper part of the cheekbones, or protection for the entire face and neck in the form of chain mail.

12. Armor became unnecessary due to the advent of firearms

In general, the gradual decline of armor was not due to the advent of firearms as such, but due to their constant improvement. Since the first firearms appeared in Europe already in the third decade of the 14th century, and the gradual decline of armor was not noted until the second half of the 17th century, armor and firearms existed together for more than 300 years. During the 16th century, attempts were made to make bulletproof armor, either by reinforcing the steel, thickening the armor, or adding individual reinforcements on top of the regular armor.

German arquebus from the late 14th century

Finally, it is worth noting that the armor never completely disappeared. The widespread use of helmets by modern soldiers and police proves that armor, although it has changed materials and may have lost some of its importance, is still a necessary part of military equipment throughout the world. Additionally, torso protection continued to exist in the form of experimental chest plates during the American Civil War, airman's plates in World War II, and bulletproof vests of modern times.

13. The size of the armor suggests that people were smaller in the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Medical and anthropological research shows that the average height of men and women has gradually increased over the centuries, a process that has accelerated over the past 150 years due to improvements in diet and public health. Most of the armor that has come down to us from the 15th and 16th centuries confirms these discoveries.

However, when drawing such general conclusions based on armor, many factors must be considered. Firstly, is the armor complete and uniform, that is, did all the parts fit together, thereby giving the correct impression of its original owner? Secondly, even high-quality armor made to order for a specific person can give an approximate idea of ​​his height, with an error of up to 2-5 cm, since the overlap of the protection of the lower abdomen (shirt and thigh guards) and hips (gaiters) can only be estimated approximately.

Armor came in all shapes and sizes, including armor for children and youth (as opposed to adults), and there was even armor for dwarfs and giants (often found in European courts as "curiosities"). In addition, other factors must be taken into account, such as the difference in average height between northern and southern Europeans, or simply the fact that people have always been unusually tall or unusually tall. short people, when compared with their average contemporaries.

Notable exceptions include examples from kings, such as Francis I, King of France (1515–47), or Henry VIII, King of England (1509–47). The latter’s height was 180 cm, as evidenced by contemporaries has been preserved, and which can be verified thanks to half a dozen of his armor that have come down to us.

Armor of the German Duke Johann Wilhelm, 16th century

Armor of Emperor Ferdinand I, 16th century

Visitors to the Metropolitan Museum can compare German armor dating from 1530 with the battle armor of Emperor Ferdinand I (1503–1564), dating from 1555. Both armors are incomplete and the dimensions of their wearers are only approximate, but the difference in size is still striking. The height of the owner of the first armor was apparently about 193 cm, and the chest circumference was 137 cm, while the height of Emperor Ferdinand did not exceed 170 cm.

14. Men's clothing is wrapped from left to right, because this is how the armor was originally closed.

The theory behind this claim is that some early forms of armor (plate protection and brigantine of the 14th and 15th centuries, armet - a closed cavalry helmet of the 15th-16th centuries, cuirass of the 16th century) were designed so that the left side overlapped the right, so as not to allow the blow of the enemy's sword to penetrate. Since most people are right-handed, most of the penetrating blows would come from the left, and, if successful, should slide across the armor through the smell and to the right.

The theory is compelling, but there is insufficient evidence that modern clothing was subject to direct influence similar armor. Additionally, while the armor protection theory may be true for the Middle Ages and Renaissance, some examples of helmets and body armor wrap the other way.

Misconceptions and questions about cutting weapons

Sword, early 15th century

Dagger, 16th century

As with armor, not everyone who carried a sword was a knight. But the idea that the sword is the prerogative of knights is not so far from the truth. Customs or even the right to carry a sword varied depending on time, place and laws.

In medieval Europe, swords were the main weapon of knights and horsemen. In times of peace, carry swords in in public places Only persons of noble birth were eligible. Since in most places swords were perceived as “weapons of war” (as opposed to the same daggers), peasants and burghers who did not belong to the warrior class of medieval society could not carry swords. An exception to the rule was made for travelers (citizens, traders and pilgrims) due to the dangers of traveling by land and sea. Within the walls of most medieval cities, the carrying of swords was forbidden to everyone - sometimes even nobles - at least in times of peace. Standard rules of trade, often present at churches or town halls, often also included examples of the permitted length of daggers or swords that could be carried without hindrance within city walls.

Without a doubt, it was these rules that gave rise to the idea that the sword is the exclusive symbol of the warrior and knight. But due to social changes and new fighting techniques that appeared in the 15th and 16th centuries, it became possible and acceptable for citizens and knights to carry lighter and thinner descendants of swords - swords, as an everyday weapon for self-defense in public places. And until the beginning of the 19th century, swords and small swords became an indispensable attribute of the clothing of the European gentleman.

It is widely believed that the swords of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were simple tools of brute force, very heavy, and as a result, impossible to handle for the “ordinary person”, that is, very ineffective weapons. The reasons for these accusations are easy to understand. Due to the rarity of surviving specimens, few people held them in their hands. real sword the Middle Ages or the Renaissance. Most of these swords were obtained from excavations. Their rusty current appearance can easily give the impression of roughness - like a burnt-out car that has lost all signs of its former grandeur and complexity.

Most real swords from the Middle Ages and Renaissance tell a different story. A one-handed sword usually weighed 1-2 kg, and even a large two-handed "war sword" of the 14th-16th centuries rarely weighed more than 4.5 kg. The weight of the blade was balanced by the weight of the hilt, and the swords were light, complex and sometimes very beautifully decorated. Documents and paintings show that such a sword, in skilled hands, could be used with terrible effectiveness, from cutting off limbs to piercing armor.

Turkish saber with scabbard, 18th century

Japanese katana and wakizashi short sword, 15th century

Swords and some daggers, both European and Asian, and weapons from the Islamic world, often have one or more grooves on the blade. Misconceptions about their purpose led to the emergence of the term “bloodstock.” It is claimed that these grooves speed up the flow of blood from an opponent's wound, thus enhancing the effect of the wound, or that they make it easier to remove the blade from the wound, allowing the weapon to be easily drawn without twisting. Despite the entertainment of such theories, in fact the purpose of this groove, called the fuller, is only to lighten the blade, reducing its mass without weakening the blade or impairing flexibility.

On some European blades, in particular swords, rapiers and daggers, as well as on some fighting poles, these grooves have a complex shape and perforation. The same perforations are present on cutting weapons from India and the Middle East. Based on scanty documentary evidence, it is believed that this perforation must have contained poison so that the blow was guaranteed to lead to the death of the enemy. This misconception has led to weapons with such perforations being called “assassin weapons.”

While references to Indian poison-bladed weapons exist, and similar rare cases may have occurred in Renaissance Europe, the true purpose of this perforation is not at all so sensational. Firstly, perforation eliminated some material and made the blade lighter. Secondly, it was often made in elaborate and intricate patterns, and served as both a demonstration of the blacksmith's skill and as decoration. To prove it, it is only necessary to point out that most of these perforations are usually located near the handle (hilt) of the weapon, and not on the other side, as would have to be done in the case of poison.

Knightly armor and weapons of the Middle Ages changed almost at the same speed as modern fashion. And knightly armor from the mid-15th century. did not even remotely resemble what warriors used to protect themselves in the 12th or 13th centuries. The evolution became especially noticeable in the late Middle Ages, when almost every year brought changes in the appearance of defensive and offensive weapons. In this review, we will talk about what kind of armor the English and French knights wore in the era when, under the leadership of the legendary Joan of Arc, the French defeated the English troops near Orleans, and there was a turning point in the Hundred Years' War.

By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. The appearance of full plate armor finally took shape. In the 20-30s. XV century The best armor was considered to be made by Italian and, above all, Milanese gunsmiths, famous for the extraordinary skill of their work. Along with the Italian ones, gunsmiths from the south of Germany and the Netherlands were also popular.

Armor

Underarmor. Under the armor in mandatory a thick quilted jacket was worn. It was sewn from leather or strong, coarse material on horsehair, cotton wool or tow. In the XIII-XIV centuries. this fabric armor was called “aketon”, in the 15th century. the term “doublet” was assigned to it. The protective properties of any armor largely depended on the thickness of the padding and the quality of the quilting of the doublet. After all, a strong blow could, without breaking through the armor, seriously injure the owner. The doublet was cut according to the style that was fashionable in the 15th century. a short, fitted jacket, usually with a front fastening and a stand-up collar. The long sleeves of the doublet could not be sewn, but laced to the armholes. The thickest padding covered the most vulnerable parts of the body: neck, chest, stomach. On the elbows and under the arms the padding was very thin or completely absent, so as not to restrict the warrior’s movements.

A quilted balaclava was also worn on the head under the helmet. One liner, as a rule, was mounted inside the helmet, the second, thinner and smaller, was worn directly on the head like a cap. Such powerful shock-absorbing linings determined the extremely large size of the helmet, which significantly exceeded the size of the knight’s head.

Quilted linings were also required to be worn under the leg armor.

By the first third of the 15th century. knights used four types of helmets: bassinet, arme, salade and helmets with brims (chapelle de fer).

Basinet was very popular already in the 14th century. This is a helmet with a hemispherical or conical head equipped with a visor. Basinets of the late XIV - early XV centuries. had a back plate that went down onto the warrior’s back, as well as a collar, which reliably protected the warrior’s head and neck. Basinettes with an elongated backplate and neck plate were called “large bassinettes” and became quite widespread. Large Basinettes were always equipped with a visor. At the end of the 14th century. The conical visor, which, because of its shape, was called “hundgugel” (dog head) in German, was extremely popular. Thanks to this shape, even powerful blows from the spear slipped off without causing harm. To make breathing easier and provide better review The visors were equipped with a lower slot at the level of the mouth and numerous round holes. These holes could only be located on the right half of the visor, which was determined by the conditions of equestrian combat with spears, in which the left half of the warrior’s helmet was primarily affected.

Fig.2 Helmet with open and closed visor

At the beginning of the 15th century. Another type of helmet appeared, which later became the very popular “Arme” helmet. The main difference between arme and basinet, in the 30s of the 15th century, was the presence of two cheek plates equipped with hinges, closing in front of the chin and locking with a hook or a belt with a buckle.

Another type of helmet originates from the bassinet, namely the so-called “salad” (in German “shaler”). The term “salade” was first used in 1407. By the time of the siege of Orleans, it began to be equipped with a movable visor attached to two hinges.

At the beginning of the 15th century. Helmets with brims were very popular. These helmets, made in the shape of an ordinary hat (hence the French name “chapel-de-fer”, literally “hat made of iron”), did not impede breathing and provided full visibility. At the same time, the overhanging fields protected the face from lateral impacts. This helmet was most widespread in the infantry, but knights and even crowned heads did not neglect it. Not long ago, during excavations in the Louvre, a luxurious chapel de fer of Charles VI, decorated with gold, was found. The heavy cavalry in the front ranks of the battle formation, which took the first, most terrible spear blow, wore closed helmets, while the fighters in the rear ranks often used helmets with brims.

Helmets of all types under consideration were decorated in accordance with fashion, the desire of the owner and the characteristics of a particular region. Thus, the French knights were characterized by plumes attached to tubes installed in the upper part of the helmet. English knights preferred to wear embroidered “burelets” (stuffed bolsters) on their helmets, and in most cases they did without them. Helmets could also be gilded or painted with tempera paints.

Note that English knights preferred basinettes and only occasionally wore chapelle-de-ferres. The French used all of these types of helmets.

Cuirass. The main element of armor that protected the body was the cuirass. Cuirasses of the 20-30s. XV century were monolithic and composite. Monolithic ones consisted of only two parts: a breastplate and a backrest. In composite ones, the breastplate and backrest were assembled from two parts, upper and lower. The top and bottom of classic Italian cuirasses were connected to each other by belts with buckles. Cuirasses produced for sale to other countries were made with sliding rivets that replaced belts. The breastplate and backrest of the first version were connected on the left side with a loop and fastened on the right side with a buckle. The parts of the cuirass of the second version were connected on the sides by means of belts with buckles. Monolithic cuirasses were more typical of English chivalry, while composite ones were more typical of French chivalry.

Lamellar hems covered the body from the waist to the base of the hips and had smooth outlines. They were assembled from horizontal steel strips stacked on top of each other from bottom to top. They were connected along the edges with rivets; an additional leather strip, riveted from the inside, was usually passed through the center. The number of steel hem strips varied from four to seven or even eight. By the second half of the 1420s. Plates began to be hung on belts from the bottom of the hem, covering the base of the thigh. These plates were called "tassets".

Brigantine. In addition to cuirasses, knights of both warring sides continued to use brigantines - armor consisting of small plates attached to the inside of fabric jackets with rivets. The fabric base was made of velvet with a lining of linen, hemp or thin skin. The most common brigantine tire colors were red and blue.

Since the 30s. XV century brigantines could be reinforced with all-metal elements, namely the lower part of the composite cuirass and a plate hem.

For the convenience of using spears in equestrian combat from the end of the 14th century. the right side of the chest part of the brigantine or cuirass began to be equipped with a support hook. During a horse fight, the shaft of a spear was placed on it.

Hand protection. The warrior’s hands were protected with special steel pads: bracers, elbow pads, shoulder guards, and shoulder pads. The bracers consisted of two wings, connected by a loop and straps with buckles. Elbow pads are strongly convex plates of a hemispherical, conical or dome shape. External part elbow pads, as a rule, were equipped with a side shield shaped like a shell. The shoulder shield had the shape of a monolithic pipe. The shoulder pad protected the shoulder joint. The armpit could be covered with an additional hanging plate of one shape or another.

An interesting type of covering the shoulder joint were brigantine shoulder pads. They were made in the manner of ordinary brigantine armor with steel plates under the fabric. Such pauldrons were either fastened (laced) to the armor, like a plate pauldron, or cut out with a brigantine.

The hands were covered with plate gloves or mittens. They were made from strips of iron and plates of various shapes and fastened with hinges. The plates that protected the fingers were riveted to narrow leather strips, which, in turn, were sewn to the fingers of ordinary gloves. In the 1420s In Italy, gauntlets made of wide strips of steel with a hinge joint were invented. At the time of the Siege of Orleans, this progressive innovation was just beginning to gain popularity in Western Europe and was rarely used by anyone except the Italians.

Leg protection. The armor that covered the legs was traditionally ahead of the development of wrist armor. The leg guard was connected to the knee pad through adapter plates on hinges. The knee pad, like the elbow pad, was complemented on the outside with a shell-shaped side shield. The lower part of the knee pad was equipped with several transition plates, the last of which was in the fashion of the 15th century. had a considerable length, up to about a third of the shin (sometimes up to the middle of the shin). In the 1430s. or a little earlier, the upper part of the legguard began to be supplemented with one transition plate, for a better fit of the leg, as well as to enhance the protection of the base of the thigh. The back of the thigh was covered with several vertical stripes on loops and buckles. A double-leaf plate greave was worn under the lower transition plates of the knee pad. The greave accurately repeated the features of the anatomical structure of the lower leg, which met the requirements of convenience and practicality. The foot was placed in the arched cutout of the front flap of the greave. This cutout was rolled around the perimeter to increase the rigidity of the greave.

The foot was protected by a plate shoe “sabaton” or “soleret”. Like the plate gauntlet, the sabaton was made up of transverse strips on hinges. Its toe had a pointed shape in the style of an ordinary leather “pulen” shoe.

Leg and wrist armor were decorated with plates made of non-ferrous metal, often chased or engraved with various geometric patterns.

The weight of the knightly armor we are considering from the first third of the 15th century. together with quilted and chain mail elements, it weighed 20-25 kg, but heavier specimens could also be found. In most cases, it depended on the physical characteristics of its owner. The thickness of the plates was, as a rule, from 1 to 3 mm. The protective parts covering the warrior’s torso, head and joints had the greatest thickness. The surface of plate armor was additionally saturated with carbon and subjected to heat treatment (hardening), due to which the plates acquired increased strength properties.

Initially, greaves with sabatons were put on, then a quilted doublet was put on the warrior’s body, to which greaves connected to knee pads were laced. Then the wrist armor was put on, laced to the upper part of the doublet sleeve. Subsequently, a cuirass with a plate hem or a brigantine was put on the warrior’s body. After the shoulder pads were secured, a quilted balaclava with a helmet was placed on the warrior’s head. Plate gloves were worn immediately before battle. Dressing a knight in full armor required the help of one or two experienced squires. The process of putting on and adjusting equipment took from 10 to 30 minutes.

During the time period under review, the chivalry of both warring sides still used the shield. The shield was made from one or several boards. It had a different shape (triangular, trapezoidal, rectangular), one or more parallel edges passing through the central part of the shield, and a cutout for a spear located on the right side. The surface of the shield was covered with leather or fabric, after which it was primed and covered with tempera painting. The images on the shields were the coats of arms of the owners, allegorical drawings, “floral” ornaments, and the mottos of the owners or units. A system of belts and a padded shock-absorbing cushion were attached to the inside of the shield.

Weapon

Edged weapons consisted of swords, cutlasses (falchions), daggers, combat knives, stilettos, axes, axes, war hammers, pickers, maces, swords and spears.

Clad in perfect armor and armed with high-quality bladed weapons, the English and French knights fought on the battlefields of the Hundred Years' War with varying degrees of success for a long time after the siege of Orleans.

Falchion (falchion) It was a piercing-cutting-chopping weapon, consisting of a massive curved or straight asymmetrical single-edged blade, often greatly expanding towards the tip, a cross-shaped guard, a handle and a pommel. This weapon, which had a massive blade, made it possible to penetrate chain mail protection. In the case where the blow landed on a warrior’s helmet, the enemy could be temporarily stunned. Due to the relatively short length of the blade, the use of falchions was especially effective in foot combat.

Battle ax It was a metal piece of iron (this part corresponds to the tip of a pole weapon), equipped with a wedge (a damaging structural element) and mounted on the handle. Very often, the piece of iron was equipped with a spike-shaped, hook-shaped or pronounced hammer-shaped protrusion on the side of the butt and a lance-shaped or spear-shaped feather directed upward. The two-handed ax already belonged to the pole weapon and was a very popular weapon in foot combat, as it had monstrous penetrating ability and a significant bruising effect.

War Hammer, belonging to the category of pole weapons, initially with only impact-crushing action, was a tip in the form of a metal striker of a cylindrical or coil shape, mounted on a wooden shaft. Quite often in the 15th century. similar weapons It was equipped with a spear-shaped or lance-shaped tip. The shaft was almost always bound with metal strips, protecting it from chopping blows and splitting.

Pernach was a weapon of shock-crushing action, consisting of a pommel and a handle. The pommel is a complex of impact striking elements in the form of plates of rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal and other shapes, assembled in an amount of 6 to 8 pieces around the circumference and fixed on a common tubular base.

Mace, just like the pernach, being a weapon of shock-crushing action, it consisted of a pommel and a handle. The pommel was made in the form of a metal ball, often equipped with edges or spikes.

Battle scourge was a weapon of shock-crushing action. It was a massive impact load (weight), connected to the handle by means of a flexible suspension (rope, leather belt or chain).

A spear was the main polearm piercing weapon knight. This weapon consisted of a steel tip and a wooden shaft equipped with a safety shield. The tip consisted of a faceted feather and a sleeve, through which the tip was attached to the shaft. The shaft was made of hardwood (ash, elm, birch) and had an elongated spindle-shaped shape. To make it easier to control the spear during battle, the shaft was equipped with a protective shield or a special cutout. To improve balance, lead was poured into the back of the shaft.

Sword consisted of a straight double-edged blade with a pronounced tip, a guard in the form of a cross, a handle and a pommel. Particularly popular were swords with a blade that smoothly tapered to the tip, had a diamond-shaped cross-section, a significant blade thickness and increased rigidity. With such a weapon it was possible to deliver effective piercing blows, capable of hitting the vulnerable spots of plate armor, the application of slashing blows to which did not bring the desired result.

Dagger, in the period under review, consisted of a narrow piercing-cutting double-edged blade, a guard of various shapes, a handle and, in rare cases, a pommel. The dagger was an almost unchanged attribute of secular and military costume. Its presence on the owner’s belt allowed him to get rid of annoying attacks on his wallet in urban conditions, and in battle it made it possible to hit the enemy in the joints and crevices of his armor.

Combat knife in its design and appearance it was not much different from a dagger and performed the same functions as the latter. The main difference was that the knife had a massive elongated triangular single-edged blade.

Stylet, being only a piercing weapon, consisted of a faceted blade with only an edge, a disc-shaped guard, the same pommel and a cylindrical or barrel-shaped handle. This weapon was not yet widely used during this period.

Ax consisted of structural elements similar to the structural elements of a battle axe. The main difference between these related groups of bladed weapons was the presence of a wedge in the ax, the width of which was greater than its length and increased in both directions relative to the vertical plane of the weapon when held with a piece of iron or the tip up. Like the battle axe, this weapon, being the weapon of wealthy warriors, could be richly decorated in the Gothic style.

It should be especially noted that both battle axes and axes, classified as pole weapons, were especially popular in France throughout the 15th century.

Klevets It was a weapon of shock-crushing, piercing action and existed in several versions. One option was a weapon equipped with a handle and did not differ in significant size; the other, due to its size and long handle, can be classified as a pole weapon. A common design feature of these varieties was the presence of a striking structural element in the form of a metal wedge equipped with a tip and a hammer-like thickening of the butt.

On the left is a reconstruction of the weapons of a French knight in the 20-30s. XV century. The knight's armor shows a strong influence of Italian gunsmiths. On the right is a reconstruction of the weapons of an English knight in the 20-30s. XV century. Despite the strong Italian influence, the armor has pronounced national features. The author of both reconstructions is K. Zhukov. Artist: S. Letin

Magazine “Empire of History” No. 2 (2) for 2002
Knights of Western Europe
Klim Zhukov and Dmitry Korovkin
pp. 72-81

The armor of the knights of the Middle Ages, photos and descriptions of which are presented in the article, went through a complex evolutionary path. They can be seen in weapons museums. This is a real work of art.

They surprise not only with their protective properties, but also with their luxury and grandeur. However, few people know that the monolithic iron armor of the knights of the Middle Ages dates back to the late period of that era. This was no longer protection, but traditional clothing that emphasized the high social status of the owner. This is a kind of analogue of modern expensive business suits. They could be used to judge the situation in society. We will talk about this in more detail later, presenting photos of knights in armor of the Middle Ages. But first, about where they came from.

First armor

The weapons and armor of the knights of the Middle Ages developed together. This is understandable. The improvement of lethal means necessarily leads to the development of defensive ones. Even in prehistoric times, man tried to protect his body. The first armor was animal skin. It protected well from soft weapons: sledgehammers, primitive axes, etc. The ancient Celts achieved perfection in this. Their protective skins sometimes withstood even sharp spears and arrows. Surprisingly, the main emphasis in defense was on the back. The logic was this: in a frontal attack it was possible to hide from shells. Backstabs are impossible to see. Flight and retreat were part of the combat tactics of these peoples.

Fabric armor

Few people know, but the armor of the knights of the Middle Ages in the early period was made of matter. It was difficult to distinguish them from peaceful civilian clothing. The only difference is that they were glued together from several layers of material (up to 30 layers). These were light, from 2 to 6 kg, inexpensive armor. In the era of mass battles and the primitiveness of chopping weapons, this is an ideal option. Any militia could afford such protection. Surprisingly, such armor even withstood arrows with stone tips, which easily pierced iron. This happened due to cushioning against the fabric. The more prosperous people used quilted caftans instead, stuffed with horsehair, cotton wool, and hemp.

The peoples of the Caucasus used similar protection until the 19th century. Their felted wool cloak was rarely cut by a saber and withstood not only arrows, but also bullets from smoothbore guns from 100 meters. Let us remember that such armor was in service with our army until the Crimean War of 1853-1856, when our soldiers died from rifled European rifles.

Leather armor

The armor of medieval knights made of leather replaced cloth ones. They became widespread in Rus'. Leather craftsmen were widely valued at the time.

In Europe, they were poorly developed, since the use of crossbows and bows was the favorite tactics of Europeans throughout the Middle Ages. Leather protection was used by archers and crossbowmen. She protected from light cavalry, as well as from brothers in arms of the opposite side. From long distances they could withstand bolts and arrows.

Buffalo leather was especially prized. It was almost impossible to get it. Only the richest could afford it. There were relatively light leather armor of the knights of the Middle Ages. Weight was from 4 to 15 kg.

Armor Evolution: Lamellar Armor

Next, evolution occurs - the production of armor for medieval knights from metal begins. One of the varieties is lamellar armor. The first mention of such technology is observed in Mesopotamia. The armor there was made of copper. Metal began to be used in similar protective technology. Lammellar armor is a scaly shell. They turned out to be the most reliable. We only got through with bullets. Their main drawback is their weight up to 25 kg. It is impossible to put it on alone. In addition, if a knight fell from his horse, he was completely neutralized. It was impossible to get up.

Chain mail

The armor of medieval knights in the form of chain mail was the most common. Already in the 12th century they became widespread. The ringed armor weighed relatively little: 8-10 kg. The full set, including stockings, helmet, gloves, reached up to 40 kg. The main advantage is that the armor did not restrict movement. Only the wealthiest aristocrats could afford them. It only became widespread among the middle classes in the 14th century, when wealthy aristocrats donned plate armor. They will be discussed further.

Armor

Plate armor is the pinnacle of evolution. Only with the development of metal forging technology was it possible to create such a work of art. It is almost impossible to make the plate armor of medieval knights with your own hands. It was a single monolithic shell. Only the richest aristocrats could afford such protection. Their distribution dates back to the Late Middle Ages. A knight in plate armor on the battlefield is a real armored tank. It was impossible to defeat him. One such warrior among the army tipped the scales towards victory. Italy is the birthplace of such protection. It was this country that was famous for its masters in the production of armor.

The desire for heavy defense stems from the battle tactics of medieval cavalry. Firstly, it delivered a powerful, swift strike in closed ranks. As a rule, after one strike with a wedge against the infantry, the battle ended in victory. Therefore, in the forefront were the most privileged aristocrats, among whom was the king himself. Knights in armor almost never died. It was impossible to kill him in battle, and after the battle the captured aristocrats were not executed, since everyone knew each other. Yesterday's enemy turned into a friend today. In addition, the exchange and sale of captured aristocrats sometimes amounted to main goal battles. In fact, medieval battles were like: There were rarely any deaths." the best people", however in real battles it still happened. Therefore, the need for improvement constantly arose.

"Peaceful Battle"

In 1439, in Italy, the homeland of the best blacksmiths, a battle took place near the city of Anghiari. Several thousand knights took part in it. After four hours of battle, only one warrior died. He fell from his horse and fell under its hooves.

The end of the era of combat armor

England put an end to "peaceful" wars. In one of the battles, the English, led by Henry XIII, who were tens of times outnumbered, used powerful Welsh bows against French aristocrats in armor. Marching confidently, they felt safe. Imagine their surprise when arrows began to rain down from above. The shock was that they had never hit knights from above before. Shields were used against frontal damage. The close formation of them reliably protected against bows and crossbows. However, the Welsh weapons were able to penetrate the armor from above. This defeat at the dawn of the Middle Ages, where the “best people” of France died, put an end to such battles.

Armor is a symbol of aristocracy

Armor has always been a symbol of aristocracy, not only in Europe, but throughout the world. Even the development of firearms did not put an end to their use. The armor always featured a coat of arms; it was a ceremonial uniform.

They were worn for holidays, celebrations, and official meetings. Of course, ceremonial armor was made in a lightweight version. Last time combat use was already in Japan in the 19th century, during the samurai uprisings. However, firearms have shown that any peasant with a rifle is much more effective than a professional warrior with a bladed weapon, dressed in heavy armor.

Armor of a medieval knight: description

So, the classic set of the average knight consisted of the following things:

Weapons and armor were not uniform throughout the history of the Middle Ages, since they performed two functions. The first is protection. Second, armor was a distinctive attribute of high social status. One complex helmet could cost entire villages with serfs. Not everyone could afford it. This also applies to complex armor. Therefore, it was impossible to find two identical sets. Feudal armor is not a uniform uniform for recruit soldiers in later eras. They are distinguished by their individuality.

Few other types of weapons have left such a mark in the history of our civilization. For thousands of years, the sword was not just a murder weapon, but also a symbol of courage and valor, a warrior’s constant companion and a source of pride. In many cultures, the sword represented dignity, leadership, and strength. Around this symbol in the Middle Ages, a professional military class was formed and its concepts of honor were developed. The sword can be called the real embodiment of war; varieties of this weapon are known to almost all cultures of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The knight's sword of the Middle Ages symbolized, among other things, the Christian cross. Before knighting, the sword was kept in the altar, cleansing the weapon from worldly filth. During the initiation ceremony, the weapon was presented to the warrior by the priest.

Knights were knighted with the help of a sword; this weapon was necessarily part of the regalia used during the coronation of crowned persons of Europe. The sword is one of the most common symbols in heraldry. We see it everywhere in the Bible and the Koran, in medieval sagas and in modern fantasy novels. However, despite its enormous cultural and public importance, the sword primarily remained a melee weapon, with the help of which it was possible to send the enemy to the next world as quickly as possible.

The sword was not available to everyone. Metals (iron and bronze) were rare, expensive, and it took a lot of time and skilled labor to make a good blade. In the early Middle Ages, it was often the presence of a sword that distinguished the leader of a detachment from an ordinary commoner warrior.

A good sword is not just a strip of forged metal, but a complex composite product consisting of several pieces of steel of different characteristics, properly processed and hardened. European industry was able to ensure the mass production of good blades only towards the end of the Middle Ages, when the importance of bladed weapons had already begun to decline.

A spear or battle ax was much cheaper, and it was much easier to learn how to use them. The sword was a weapon of the elite, professional warriors, and definitely a status item. To achieve true mastery, a swordsman had to train daily, for many months and years.

Historical documents that have come down to us say that the cost of a sword of average quality could be equal to the price of four cows. Swords made by famous blacksmiths were much more valuable. And the weapons of the elite, decorated precious metals and stones, cost a fortune.

First of all, the sword is good for its versatility. It could be used effectively on foot or on horseback, for attack or defense, and as a primary or secondary weapon. The sword was perfect for personal protection (for example, on trips or in court battles), it could be carried with you and, if necessary, quickly used.

The sword has a low center of gravity, which makes it much easier to control. Fencing with a sword is significantly less tiring than swinging a club of similar length and weight. The sword allowed the fighter to realize his advantage not only in strength, but also in agility and speed.

The main drawback of the sword, which gunsmiths tried to get rid of throughout the history of the development of this weapon, was its low “penetrating” ability. And the reason for this was also the low center of gravity of the weapon. Against a well-armored enemy, it was better to use something else: a battle axe, a hammer, a hammer, or a regular spear.

Now we should say a few words about the very concept of this weapon. A sword is a type of bladed weapon that has a straight blade and is used to deliver cutting and piercing blows. Sometimes the length of the blade is added to this definition, which should be at least 60 cm. But a short sword was sometimes even smaller; examples include the Roman gladius and the Scythian akinak. The largest two-handed swords reached almost two meters in length.

If a weapon has one blade, then it should be classified as a broadsword, and a weapon with a curved blade should be classified as a saber. The famous Japanese katana is not actually a sword, but a typical saber. Also, swords and rapiers should not be classified as swords; they are usually classified into separate groups of bladed weapons.

How does a sword work?

As mentioned above, a sword is a straight, double-edged bladed weapon designed to deliver piercing, slashing, slashing and stabbing blows. Its design is very simple - it is a narrow strip of steel with a handle at one end. The shape or profile of the blade changed throughout the history of this weapon, it depended on the fighting technique that prevailed in a given period. Combat swords of different eras could “specialize” in slashing or piercing blows.

The division of bladed weapons into swords and daggers is also somewhat arbitrary. We can say that the short sword had a longer blade than the dagger itself - but drawing a clear line between these types of weapons is not always easy. Sometimes a classification based on the length of the blade is used, according to which the following are distinguished:

• Short sword. Blade length 60-70 cm;
• Long sword. The size of his blade was 70-90 cm, it could be used by both foot and horse warriors;
• Cavalry sword. The length of the blade is more than 90 cm.

The weight of the sword varies within a very wide range: from 700 grams (gladius, akinak) to 5-6 kg (large sword of the flamberge type or slasher).

Swords are also often divided into one-handed, one-and-a-half and two-handed. A one-handed sword usually weighed from one to one and a half kilograms.

The sword consists of two parts: the blade and the hilt. The cutting edge of the blade is called the blade; the blade ends with a point. As a rule, it had a stiffener and a fuller - a recess designed to lighten the weapon and give it additional rigidity. The unsharpened part of the blade adjacent directly to the guard is called the ricasso (heel). The blade can also be divided into three parts: strong part(often it was not sharpened at all), the middle part and the point.

The hilt includes a guard (in medieval swords it often looked like a simple cross), a handle, and a pommel, or pommel. The last element of the weapon has great importance for proper balancing and also prevents the hand from slipping. The crosspiece also performs several important functions: it prevents the hand from sliding forward after striking, protects the hand from hitting the enemy’s shield, the crosspiece was also used in some fencing techniques. And only last but not least did the crosspiece protect the swordsman’s hand from the blow of the enemy’s weapon. So, at least, it follows from medieval fencing manuals.

An important characteristic of the blade is its cross-section. Many variants of the section are known; they changed along with the development of weapons. Early swords (during barbarian and Viking times) often had a lenticular cross-section, which was more suitable for cutting and slashing. As armor developed, the rhombic section of the blade became increasingly popular: it was more rigid and more suitable for thrusting.

The sword blade has two tapers: in length and in thickness. This is necessary to reduce the weight of the weapon, improve its controllability in battle and increase the efficiency of use.

The balance point (or equilibrium point) is the center of gravity of the weapon. As a rule, it is located a finger's distance from the guard. However, this characteristic can vary quite widely depending on the type of sword.

Speaking about the classification of this weapon, it should be noted that the sword is a “piece” product. Each blade was made (or selected) for a specific fighter, his height and arm length. Therefore, no two swords are completely identical, although blades of the same type are similar in many ways.

An invariable accessory of the sword was the scabbard - a case for carrying and storing this weapon. Sword sheaths were made from various materials: metal, leather, wood, fabric. At the bottom they had a tip, and at the top they ended at the mouth. Typically these elements were made of metal. The sword scabbard had various devices that made it possible to attach it to a belt, clothing or saddle.

The birth of the sword - the era of antiquity

It is unknown when exactly man made the first sword. Wooden clubs can be considered their prototype. However, the sword in the modern sense of the word could only arise after people began to smelt metals. The first swords were probably made of copper, but this metal was very quickly replaced by bronze, a more durable alloy of copper and tin. Structurally, the oldest bronze blades were not much different from their later steel counterparts. Bronze resists corrosion very well, which is why today we have a large number of bronze swords discovered by archaeologists in different regions of the world.

The oldest sword known today was found in one of the burial mounds in the Republic of Adygea. Scientists believe that it was made 4 thousand years BC.

It is curious that before burial with the owner, bronze swords were often symbolically bent.

Bronze swords have properties that are in many ways different from steel ones. Bronze does not spring, but it can bend without breaking. To reduce the likelihood of deformation, bronze swords were often equipped with impressive stiffening ribs. For the same reason, it is difficult to make a large sword from bronze; usually such weapons had relatively modest dimensions - about 60 cm.

Bronze weapons were made by casting, so there were no particular problems in creating blades of complex shapes. Examples include the Egyptian khopesh, the Persian kopis and the Greek mahaira. True, all these samples of edged weapons were cutlasses or sabers, but not swords. Bronze weapons were poorly suited for piercing armor or fencing; blades made of this material were more often used for cutting rather than piercing blows.

Some ancient civilizations also used a large sword made of bronze. During excavations on the island of Crete, blades more than a meter long were found. They are believed to have been made around 1700 BC.

They learned to make swords from iron around the 8th century BC, and in the 5th century they had already become widespread. although bronze was used along with iron for many centuries. Europe switched to iron more quickly because the region had much more of it than the tin and copper deposits needed to create bronze.

Among the currently known blades of antiquity, one can highlight the Greek xiphos, the Roman gladius and spatha, and the Scythian sword akinak.

The xiphos is a short sword with a leaf-shaped blade, the length of which was approximately 60 cm. It was used by the Greeks and Spartans, later this weapon was actively used in the army of Alexander the Great; the warriors of the famous Macedonian phalanx were armed with the xiphos.

The Gladius is another famous short sword that was one of the main weapons of the heavy Roman infantry - legionnaires. The gladius had a length of about 60 cm and the center of gravity was shifted towards the handle due to the massive pommel. These weapons could deliver both slashing and piercing blows; the gladius was especially effective in close formation.

Spatha is a large sword (about a meter long) that apparently first appeared among the Celts or Sarmatians. Later, the Gauls' cavalry, and then the Roman cavalry, were armed with spatami. However, spatha was also used by foot Roman soldiers. Initially, this sword did not have an edge, it was a purely chopping weapon. Later, spatha became suitable for stabbing.

Akinak. This is a short one-handed sword, which was used by the Scythians and other peoples of the Northern Black Sea region and the Middle East. It should be understood that the Greeks often called all the tribes roaming the Black Sea steppes Scythians. Akinak was 60 cm long, weighed about 2 kg, and had excellent piercing and cutting properties. The crosshair of this sword was heart-shaped, and the pommel resembled a beam or a crescent.

Swords from the era of chivalry

The “finest hour” of the sword, however, like many other types of bladed weapons, was the Middle Ages. For this historical period, the sword was more than just a weapon. The medieval sword developed over a thousand years, its history began around the 5th century with the advent of the German spatha, and ended in XVI century, when he was replaced by a sword. The development of the medieval sword was inextricably linked with the evolution of armor.

The collapse of the Roman Empire was marked by the decline of military art and the loss of many technologies and knowledge. Europe plunged into dark times of fragmentation and internecine wars. Battle tactics were significantly simplified, and the number of armies was reduced. In the Early Middle Ages, battles mainly took place in open areas; opponents, as a rule, neglected defensive tactics.

This period is characterized by an almost complete absence of armor, unless the nobility could afford chain mail or plate armor. Due to the decline of crafts, the sword is transformed from the weapon of an ordinary soldier into the weapon of a select elite.

At the beginning of the first millennium, Europe was in a “fever”: the Great Migration of Peoples was underway, and barbarian tribes (Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks) created new states in the territories of the former Roman provinces. The first European sword is considered to be the German spatha, its further continuation is the Merovingian type sword, named after the French royal dynasty of the Merovingians.

The Merovingian sword had a blade approximately 75 cm long with a rounded tip, a wide and flat fuller, a thick cross and a massive pommel. The blade practically did not taper to the tip; the weapon was more suitable for delivering cutting and chopping blows. At that time, only very wealthy people could afford a combat sword, so Merovingian swords were richly decorated. This type of sword was in use until about the 9th century, but already in the 8th century it began to be replaced by a Carolingian type sword. This weapon is also called the Viking Age sword.

Around the 8th century AD, a new misfortune came to Europe: regular raids by Vikings or Normans began from the north. These were fierce, fair-haired warriors who knew no mercy or pity, fearless sailors who roamed the open spaces European seas. The souls of the dead Vikings were taken from the battlefield by golden-haired warrior maidens straight to the halls of Odin.

In fact, Carolingian-type swords were produced on the continent, and they came to Scandinavia as military booty or ordinary goods. The Vikings had a custom of burying a sword with a warrior, which is why a large number of Carolingian swords were found in Scandinavia.

The Carolingian sword is in many ways similar to the Merovingian, but it is more elegant, better balanced, and the blade has a well-defined edge. The sword was still an expensive weapon; according to the orders of Charlemagne, cavalrymen must be armed with it, while foot soldiers, as a rule, used something simpler.

Together with the Normans, the Carolingian sword also entered the territory Kievan Rus. On Slavic lands There were even centers where such weapons were made.

The Vikings (like the ancient Germans) treated their swords with special reverence. Their sagas contain many stories about special magical swords, as well as about family blades passed down from generation to generation.

Around the second half of the 11th century, the gradual transformation of the Carolingian sword into a knightly or Romanesque sword began. At this time, cities began to grow in Europe, crafts developed rapidly, and the level of blacksmithing and metallurgy increased significantly. The shape and characteristics of any blade were primarily determined by the enemy’s protective equipment. At that time it consisted of a shield, helmet and armor.

To learn to wield a sword, the future knight began training from early childhood. At about the age of seven, he was usually sent to some relative or friendly knight, where the boy continued to master the secrets of noble combat. At the age of 12-13 he became a squire, after which his training continued for another 6-7 years. Then the young man could be knighted, or he continued to serve with the rank of “noble squire.” The difference was small: the knight had the right to wear a sword on his belt, and the squire attached it to the saddle. In the Middle Ages, the sword clearly distinguished a free man and knight from a commoner or slave.

Ordinary warriors as protective equipment They usually wore leather armor made from specially treated leather. The nobility used chain mail shirts or leather armor, onto which metal plates were sewn. Until the 11th century, helmets were also made of treated leather, reinforced with metal inserts. However, later helmets were mainly made from metal plates, which were extremely difficult to break through with a chopping blow.

The most important element of a warrior’s defense was the shield. It was made from a thick layer of wood (up to 2 cm) of durable species and covered with treated leather on top, and sometimes reinforced with metal strips or rivets. This was a very effective defense; such a shield could not be penetrated with a sword. Accordingly, in battle it was necessary to hit a part of the enemy’s body that was not covered by a shield, and the sword had to pierce the enemy’s armor. This led to changes in sword design in the early Middle Ages. Typically they had the following criteria:

• Total length about 90 cm;
• Relatively light weight, which made it easy to fencing with one hand;
• Sharpening blades designed to deliver an effective cutting blow;
• The weight of such a one-handed sword did not exceed 1.3 kg.

Around the middle of the 13th century, a real revolution took place in the armament of the knight - plate armor became widespread. To break through such a defense, it was necessary to inflict piercing blows. This led to significant changes in the shape of the Romanesque sword; it began to narrow, and the tip of the weapon became more and more pronounced. The cross-section of the blades also changed, they became thicker and heavier, and received stiffening ribs.

Around the 13th century, the importance of infantry on the battlefield began to increase rapidly. Thanks to the improvement of infantry armor, it became possible to dramatically reduce the shield, or even abandon it altogether. This led to the fact that the sword began to be taken in both hands to enhance the blow. This is how the long sword appeared, a variation of which is the bastard sword. In modern historical literature it is called the “bastard sword.” Bastards were also called “war swords” - weapons of such length and weight were not carried with them just like that, but taken to war.

The bastard sword led to the emergence of new fencing techniques - the half-hand technique: the blade was sharpened only in the upper third, and its lower part could be intercepted by the hand, further enhancing the piercing blow.

This weapon can be called a transitional stage between one-handed and two-handed swords. The heyday of long swords was the era of the late Middle Ages.

During the same period, two-handed swords became widespread. These were real giants among their brothers. The total length of this weapon could reach two meters and weight – 5 kilograms. Two-handed swords were used by infantrymen; they did not have sheaths made for them, but were worn on the shoulder, like a halberd or a pike. Disputes continue among historians today as to exactly how these weapons were used. The most famous representatives of this type of weapon are the zweihander, claymore, spandrel and flamberge - wavy or curved two-handed sword.

Almost all two-handed swords had a significant ricasso, which was often covered with leather for greater ease of fencing. At the end of the ricasso there were often additional hooks (“boar’s tusks”), which protected the hand from enemy blows.

Claymore. This is a type of two-handed sword (there were also one-handed claymores) that was used in Scotland in the 15th-17th centuries. Claymore means "great sword" in Gaelic. It should be noted that the claymore was the smallest of the two-handed swords, its total size reached 1.5 meters, and the length of the blade was 110-120 cm.

A distinctive feature of this sword was the shape of the guard: the arms of the cross were bent towards the tip. The claymore was the most versatile “two-handed weapon”; its relatively small dimensions made it possible to use it in various combat situations.

Zweihander. The famous two-handed sword of the German Landsknechts, and their special unit - the Doppelsoldners. These warriors received double pay; they fought in the front ranks, cutting down the enemy's peaks. It is clear that such work was mortally dangerous, in addition, it required a lot of physical strength and excellent weapon skills.

This giant could reach a length of 2 meters, had a double guard with “boar tusks” and a ricasso covered with leather.

Slasher. A classic two-handed sword, most often used in Germany and Switzerland. The total length of the slasher could reach up to 1.8 meters, of which 1.5 meters was on the blade. To increase the penetrating power of the sword, its center of gravity was often shifted closer to the tip. The weight of the sledge ranged from 3 to 5 kg.

Flamberge. A wavy or curved two-handed sword, it had a blade of a special flame-like shape. Most often, these weapons were used in Germany and Switzerland in the 15th-17th centuries. Currently, flamberges are in service with the Vatican Guard.

The curved two-handed sword is an attempt by European gunsmiths to combine best properties sword and saber. Flamberge had a blade with a number of successive curves; when delivering chopping blows, it acted on the principle of a saw, cutting through armor and inflicting terrible, long-lasting wounds. The curved two-handed sword was considered an “inhumane” weapon, and the church actively opposed it. Warriors with such a sword should not have been captured, best case scenario they were killed immediately.

The flamberge was approximately 1.5 m long and weighed 3-4 kg. It should also be noted that such a weapon was much more expensive than a regular one, because it was very difficult to manufacture. Despite this, similar two-handed swords were often used by mercenaries during the Thirty Years' War in Germany.

Among interesting swords During the late Middle Ages, it is also worth noting the so-called sword of justice, which was used to carry out death sentences. In the Middle Ages, heads were most often chopped off with an ax, and the sword was used exclusively for beheading members of the nobility. Firstly, it was more honorable, and secondly, execution with a sword brought less suffering to the victim.

The technique of beheading with a sword had its own characteristics. The scaffold was not used. The condemned man was simply forced to his knees, and the executioner cut off his head with one blow. One might also add that the “sword of justice” had no edge at all.

By the 15th century, the technique of wielding edged weapons was changing, which led to changes in bladed edged weapons. At the same time, firearms are increasingly used, which easily penetrate any armor, and as a result it becomes almost unnecessary. Why carry a bunch of iron on you if it can't protect your life? Along with armor, heavy medieval swords, which clearly had an “armor-piercing” character, are also becoming a thing of the past.

The sword becomes more and more a piercing weapon, it tapers towards the tip, becomes thicker and narrower. The grip of the weapon changes: in order to deliver more effective piercing blows, swordsmen grasp the cross from the outside. Very soon special arches appear on it to protect the fingers. This is how the sword begins its glorious path.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the sword guard became significantly more complex in order to more reliably protect the fencer’s fingers and hand. Swords and broadswords appeared in which the guard looked like a complex basket, which included numerous bows or a solid shield.

Weapons become lighter, they gain popularity not only among the nobility, but also large quantity townspeople and becomes an integral part of everyday costume. In war they still use a helmet and cuirass, but in frequent duels or street fights they fight without any armor. The art of fencing is becoming significantly more complex, new techniques and techniques are appearing.

A sword is a weapon with a narrow cutting and piercing blade and a developed hilt that reliably protects the fencer’s hand.

In the 17th century, the rapier evolved from the sword - a weapon with a piercing blade, sometimes even without cutting edges. Both the sword and the rapier were intended to be worn with casual clothing, not with armor. Later, this weapon turned into a certain attribute, a detail of the appearance of a person of noble origin. It is also necessary to add that the rapier was lighter than the sword and gave tangible advantages in a duel without armor.

The most common myths about swords

The sword is the most iconic weapon invented by man. Interest in it continues today. Unfortunately, there are many misconceptions and myths associated with this type of weapon.

Myth 1. The European sword was heavy; in battle it was used to inflict concussion on the enemy and break through his armor - like an ordinary club. At the same time, absolutely fantastic mass figures are announced medieval swords(10-15 kg). This opinion is not true. The weight of all surviving original medieval swords ranges from 600 grams to 1.4 kg. On average, the blades weighed about 1 kg. Rapiers and sabers, which appeared much later, had similar characteristics (from 0.8 to 1.2 kg). European swords were convenient and well-balanced weapons, effective and convenient in battle.

Myth 2. Swords do not have a sharp edge. It is stated that against the armor the sword acted like a chisel, breaking through it. This assumption is also not true. Historical documents that have survived to this day describe swords as sharp weapons that could cut a person in half.

In addition, the very geometry of the blade (its cross-section) does not allow sharpening to be obtuse (like a chisel). Studies of the graves of warriors who died in medieval battles also prove the high cutting ability of swords. The fallen were found to have severed limbs and serious chop wounds.

Myth 3. “Bad” steel was used for European swords. Today there is a lot of talk about the excellent steel of traditional Japanese blades, which are supposedly the pinnacle of blacksmithing. However, historians absolutely know that the technology of welding various types of steel was successfully used in Europe already in antiquity. The hardening of the blades was also at the proper level. The technologies for making Damascus knives, blades and other things were also well known in Europe. By the way, there is no evidence that Damascus was a serious metallurgical center at any time. In general, the myth about the superiority of eastern steel (and blades) over western steel was born back in the 19th century, when there was a fashion for everything eastern and exotic.

Myth 4. Europe did not have its own developed fencing system. What can I say? You should not consider your ancestors more stupid than you. The Europeans waged almost continuous wars using edged weapons for several thousand years and had ancient military traditions, so they simply could not help but create a developed combat system. This fact is confirmed by historians. To this day, many manuals on fencing have been preserved, the oldest of which date back to the 13th century. Moreover, many of the techniques from these books are more designed for the dexterity and speed of the fencer than for primitive brute strength.

Knight's Armament

On the battlefield, a heavily armed knight had all the advantages. Riders of junior ranks (sergeants who were not knights) tried to imitate them in everything, although their armor and weapons were inferior to those of knights. The troops, recruited from urban and rural militia, consisted of archers, crossbowmen, whose role in battles was constantly increasing, and auxiliary infantry units armed with spears, spears and knives. Their armor consisted of an iron helmet and short chain mail woven from rings or armor made of leather and covered with metal plaques.

Knight's Battle Dress

Knight's weapons

The rider's equipment consisted of a spear about three meters long, which he pressed with his hand to his body and, leaning on the stirrups, in a fight with the enemy, he tried to knock him out of the saddle, piercing his shield and armor with the spear. A similar practice of attacking with a spear at the ready, illustrated by embroideries from Bayeux, appeared in the 11th century, although at a later time there were knights fighting using the ancient method of spear throwing.

In addition to the spear, the knight was armed with a straight and wide-bladed sword; sometimes he had another shorter sword attached to his belt. By the end of the 13th century. armor has become so strong that piercing and cutting blows have lost their effectiveness, and the sword becomes a slashing weapon. In battle, the massiveness of the sword was also of great importance, making it possible to knock down the enemy on the spot. In foot combat, the so-called “Danish axe” (introduced by the Vikings) was used, which was usually held with both hands. Being an offensive weapon, the sword also had a symbolic meaning for each knight: it was usually given a name (Roland's sword Durendal), it was blessed on the day of knighting, and it was passed down as part of the lineage.

Defensive knightly armor included chain mail, which went down in the form of a shirt to the knees with slits in the front and back for ease of movement or formed something like pants. It was made of many intertwined iron rings and sometimes had sleeves and a hood. Hands were protected by gloves-mittens, also woven from rings. Total weight knightly armor reached 12 kilograms.

Under the chain mail the knight wore a sweatshirt, and on top - something like a sleeveless tunic, tied at the waist, on which, starting from the 13th century, the warrior's coats of arms were attached. The protection of the most vulnerable parts of the body with metal plates also dates back to this time; connected to each other, they received widespread, starting at the end of the 14th century. Around 1300, half armor or light chain mail appeared, which was a short garment made of linen or leather, covered inside or outside with metal plaques or plates. The helmet was worn on the hood and had the most various forms, initially it was conical, then cylindrical with a nosepiece, later it almost completely covered the back of the head and face. Small slits for the eyes and holes in the helmet allowed breathing and orientation in battle. The shield was almond-shaped and made of wood, lined with copper and reinforced with iron. It almost disappeared from use when the wearing of armor became common.

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