Bogatyrs are the epic defenders of the Russian Land, “superheroes” of the Russian people for many centuries.

Let's remember the main ones.

1. Ilya Muromets. Holy hero

Ilya Muromets is canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church; he is the main Russian hero.

Ilya Muromets is the main character not only of Russian epics, but also, for example, of German epic poems of the 13th century.

In them he is also called Ilya, he is also a hero, yearning for his homeland. Ilya Muromets also appears in the Scandinavian sagas, in them he is, no less, the blood brother of Prince Vladimir.

2. Bova Korolevich. Lubok hero

Bova Korolevich was the most popular hero among the people for a long time. Popular folk tales about the “precious hero” were published in hundreds of editions from the 18th to the 20th centuries. Pushkin wrote “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”, partially borrowing the plot and names of the heroes of the fairy tales about the Boy Korolevich, which his nanny read to him. Moreover, he even made sketches of the poem “Bova,” but death would prevent him from finishing the work.

The prototype of this knight was the French knight Bovo de Anton from the famous chronicle poem Reali di Francia, written in the 14th century. In this respect, Bova is a completely unique hero - a visiting hero.

3. Alyosha Popovich. Junior

“The youngest of the younger” heroes, and therefore his set of qualities is not so “Superman”. He is not even a stranger to vice: cunning, selfishness, greed. That is, on the one hand, he is distinguished by courage, but on the other hand, he is proud, arrogant, abusive, perky and rude.

4. Svyatogor. Mega-hero

Mega-hero. But a hero of the “old world.” The giant, the elder hero the size of a mountain, whom even the earth cannot support, lies on the mountain in inaction. The epics tell of his meeting with earthly cravings and death in a magical grave.

Many features of the biblical hero Samson were transferred to Svyatogor. It's hard to pinpoint it exactly ancient origin. In the legends of the people, the veteran hero transfers his strength to Ilya Muromets, the hero of the Christian century.

5. Dobrynya Nikitich. A well-connected hero

Dobrynya Nikitich is often correlated with the chronicle Dobrynya, the uncle of Prince Vladimir (according to another version, nephew). His name personifies the essence of “heroic kindness.” Dobrynya has the nickname “young”, with a huge physical strength“He wouldn’t hurt a fly,” he is the protector of “widows and orphans, unfortunate wives.” Dobrynya is also “an artist at heart: a master of singing and playing the harp.”

6. Duke Stepanovich. Bogatyr Major

Duke Stepanovich comes to Kiev from conventional India, behind which, according to folklorists, in this case the Galician-Volyn land is hidden, and organizes a marathon of boasting in Kiev, undergoes tests from the prince, and continues to boast. As a result, Vladimir finds out that Duke is indeed very rich and offers him citizenship. But Duke refuses, because “if you sell Kyiv and Chernigov and buy paper for an inventory of Dyukov’s wealth, there won’t be enough paper.”

7. Mikula Selyaninovich. Bogatyr Plowman

Mikula Selyaninovich is a bogatyr agrarian. Found in two epics: about Svyatogor and about Volga Svyatoslavich. Mikula is the first representative of agricultural life, a powerful peasant plowman.
He is strong and resilient, but homely. He puts all his strength into farming and family.

8. Volga Svyatoslavovich. Bogatyr magician

Supporters of the “historical school” in the study of epics believe that the prototype of the epic Volga was Prince Vseslav of Polotsk. Volga was also correlated with the Prophetic Oleg, and his campaign in India with Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople. Volga is a difficult hero; he has the ability to become a werewolf and can understand the language of animals and birds.

9. Sukhman Odikhmantievich. Insulted hero

According to Vsevolod Miller, the prototype of the hero was the Pskov prince Dovmont, who ruled from 1266 to 1299.

In the epic of the Kyiv cycle, Sukhman goes to get a white swan for Prince Vladimir, but on the way he comes into conflict with the Tatar horde, who are building Kalinov bridges on the Nepra River. Sukhman defeats the Tatars, but in the battle he receives wounds, which he covers with leaves. Returning to Kyiv without the white swan, he tells the prince about the battle, but the prince does not believe him and imprisons Sukhman in prison until clarification. Dobrynya goes to Nepra and finds out that Sukhman did not lie. But it's' too late. Sukhman feels disgraced, peels off the leaves and bleeds. The Sukhman River begins from his blood.

10. Danube Ivanovich. Tragic hero

According to epics about the Danube, it was from the blood of the hero that the river of the same name began. The Danube is a tragic hero. He loses to his wife Nastasya in an archery competition, accidentally hits her while trying to get even, finds out that Nastasya was pregnant and stumbles upon a saber.

11. Mikhailo Potyk. Faithful husband

Folklorists disagree on who should be associated with Mikhailo Potyk (or Potok). The roots of his image are found in the Bulgarian heroic epic, and in Western European fairy tales, and even in the Mongolian epic “Geser”.
According to one of the epics, Potok and his wife Avdotya Swan Belaya make a vow that whichever of them dies first, the second one will be buried alive next to him in the grave. When Avdotya dies, Potok is buried nearby in fully armed and on horseback, he fights with the dragon and revives his wife with his blood. When he himself dies, Avdotya is buried with him.

12. Khoten Bludovich. Bogatyr-groom

Bogatyr Khoten Bludovich for the sake of marriage with enviable bride The Tea Sentinel first beats her nine brothers, then an entire army hired by her future mother-in-law. As a result, the hero receives a rich dowry and appears in the epic as the hero “who married well.”

13. Vasily Buslaev. Zealous hero

The most daring hero of the Novgorod epic cycle. His unbridled temper leads to conflict with the Novgorodians and he desperately rages, bets that he will beat all the Novgorod men on the Volkhov Bridge and almost fulfills his promise - until his mother stops him.

In another epic, he is already mature and goes to Jerusalem to atone for his sins. But Buslaev is incorrigible - he again takes up his old ways and dies absurdly, proving his youth.

14. Anika warrior. Bogatyr in words

Anika warrior is still called today a person who likes to show off his strength far from danger. Unusual for a Russian epic hero, the name of the hero was most likely taken from the Byzantine legend about the hero Digenis, who is mentioned there with a constant epithet anikitos.

Anika the warrior in the verse boasts of strength and offends the weak, death itself shames him for this, Anika challenges her and dies.

15. Nikita Kozhemyaka. Wyrm Fighter

Nikita Kozhemyaka in Russian fairy tales is one of the main characters-snake fighters. Before entering into battle with the Serpent, he tears 12 skins, thereby proving his legendary strength. Kozhemyaka not only defeats the Snake, but also harnesses him to a plow and plows the land from Kyiv to the Black Sea. The defensive ramparts near Kiev got their name (Zmievs) precisely because of the actions of Nikita Kozhemyaka.

Russian epics are a reflection of historical events retold by the people, and as a result, have undergone strong changes. Each hero and villain in them is most often a real-life personality, whose life or activity was taken as the basis of a character or a collective image that was very important for that time.

Heroes of epics

Ilya Muromets (Russian hero)

Glorious Russian hero and brave warrior. This is exactly how Ilya Muromets appears in the Russian epic epic. Having served Prince Vladimir faithfully, the warrior was paralyzed from birth and sat on the stove for exactly 33 years. Brave, strong and fearless, he was cured of paralysis by the elders and gave all his heroic strength to the defense of the Russian lands from the Nightingale the Robber, the invasion of the Tatar yoke and the Foul Idol.

The hero of epics has real prototype– Elijah of Pechersk, canonized as Ilya of Muromets. In his youth, he suffered paralysis of the limbs, and died from a spear blow to the heart.

Dobrynya Nikitich (Russian hero)

Another hero from the illustrious troika of Russian heroes. He served Prince Vladimir and carried out his personal assignments. He was the closest of all the heroes to the princely family. Strong, brave, dexterous and fearless, he swam beautifully, knew how to play the harp, knew about 12 languages ​​and was a diplomat when deciding state affairs.

The real prototype of the glorious warrior is the governor Dobrynya, who was the uncle of the prince himself on his mother’s side.

Alyosha Popovich (Russian hero)

Alyosha Popovich is the youngest of the three heroes. He is famous not so much for his strength as for his pressure, resourcefulness and cunning. A lover of boasting about his achievements, he was guided on the right path by older heroes. He behaved in two ways towards them. Supporting and protecting the glorious troika, he falsely buried Dobrynya in order to marry his wife Nastasya.

Olesha Popovich is a brave Rostov boyar, whose name is associated with the appearance of the image of the epic hero-hero.

Sadko (Novgorod hero)

A lucky guslar from Novgorod epics. For many years he earned his daily bread by playing the harp. Having received a reward from the Tsar of the Sea, Sadko became rich and set off by sea to overseas countries with 30 ships. Along the way, his benefactor took him to him as a ransom. According to the instructions of Nicholas the Wonderworker, the guslar managed to escape from captivity.

The prototype of the hero is Sodko Sytinets, a Novgorod merchant.

Svyatogor (hero-giant)

A giant and hero with remarkable strength. Huge and powerful, born in the Mountains of the Saints. As he walked, the forests shook and the rivers overflowed. Svyatogor transferred part of his power in the writings of the Russian epic to Ilya Muromets. Soon after this he died.

There is no real prototype of the image of Svyatogor. It is a symbol of enormous primitive power, which has never been used.

Mikula Selyaninovich (plowman-hero)

The hero and the peasant who plowed the land. According to the epics, he knew Svyatogor and gave him a bag to lift full of earthly weight. According to legend, it was impossible to fight with the plowman; he was under the protection of Mother Damp Earth. His daughters are the wives of the heroes, Stavr and Dobrynya.

The image of Mikula is fictitious. The name itself is derived from Mikhail and Nikolai, common at that time.

Volga Svyatoslavich (Russian hero)

Hero-bogatyr of the most ancient epics. He possessed not only impressive strength, but also the ability to understand the language of birds, as well as to turn into any animal and turn others into them. He went on campaigns to Turkish and Indian lands, and then became their ruler.

Many scientists identify the image of Volga Svyatoslavich with Oleg the Prophet.

Nikita Kozhemyaka (Kyiv hero)

Hero of Kyiv epics. A brave hero with enormous strength. Could easily tear apart a dozen folded bull hides. He snatched the skin and meat from the angry bulls rushing towards him. He became famous for defeating the snake, freeing the princess from his captivity.

The hero owes his appearance to the myths about Perun, reduced to everyday manifestations of miraculous power.

Stavr Godinovich (Chernigov boyar)

Stavr Godinovich is a boyar from the Chernihiv region. He was known for his good playing of the harp and his strong love for his wife, whose talents he was not averse to boasting to others. In epics it does not play the main role. More famous is his wife Vasilisa Mikulishna, who rescued her husband from imprisonment in the dungeons of Vladimir Krasna Solnyshka.

There is a mention of the real Sotsk Stavr in the chronicles of 1118. He was also imprisoned in the cellars of Prince Vladimir Monomakh after the riots.

Antiheroes of epics

Nightingale the Robber (anti-hero)

An ardent opponent of Ilya Muromets and a robber who for many years robbed both foot and horsemen on the road he had built. He killed them not with a gun, but with his own whistle. In epics, he most often appears in human form with clearly expressed Turkic facial features.

It is believed that his image was taken from the Mordvichs who lived in Nizhny Novgorod. Their traditional names are the names of birds: Nightingale, Starling, etc.

Serpent Gorynych (serpent dragon)

The Dragon. A fire breather with three heads. This is the classic image of the Serpent Gorynych in Russian epics. The snake has one body, has wings, large sharp claws, and an arrow-like tail. It guards the bridge-passage to the kingdom of the dead and spews fire when it attacks. He lives in the mountains, hence the nickname “Gorynych”.

The image of the serpent is mythical. Similar ones are found in Serbian and Iranian mythology.

Idolishche Poganoe (villain)

An idol is also a hero, only from dark forces. Due to its gluttony, it has a huge shapeless body. Evil, unbaptized and not recognizing religions. He plundered cities with his army, simultaneously prohibiting alms and churches. Visited Russian lands, Turkey and Sweden.

In history, the prototype of the Idol was Khan Itlar, who carried out barbarian raids on the cities of Russian lands.

Russian heroes are not just history. They reflect the essence of the Russian person, his attitude towards the Motherland. Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich, Gorynya, Dobrynya Nikitich and many others dedicated their lives to serving Rus'. They fought with countless enemies our people, protecting and defending ordinary people. The exploits of Russian heroes will forever remain in memory - in the form of epics, songs and legends, as well as other epics written by eyewitnesses of those events. They are the ones who make us proud of our people and the land that raised such giants.

History of heroes in Rus'

Probably each of us at school or on TV heard stories about powerful and invincible heroes. Their exploits inspire, inspire hope and make us proud of our own people, their strength, dedication and wisdom.

Many historians divide Russian heroes into older and younger ones. If you follow the epic and epics, then you can clearly draw a line between Old Slavic demigods and Christian heroes. Russian ancient heroes are the all-powerful Svyatogor, the mighty Verni-Gora, Mikula Selyaninovich, the Danube and others.

They are distinguished by their unbridled natural power. These heroes are the personification of the deified forces of nature and its invincibility. In later sources they are given a somewhat negative connotation. They become heroes who cannot and do not want to use their own power for good. Most often, these are simply destroyers, showing off their power to other heroes and ordinary people.

This was done in order to push people towards a new world - a Christian one. The heroic destroyers are being replaced by the heroic creators, the defenders of the Russian Orthodox land. These are Dobrynya Nikitich, Nikita Kozhemyaka, Peresvet and many, many others. One cannot help but recall the exploits of the Russian hero Ilya Muromets. This is a favorite image for many writers and artists. Having recovered from a serious illness, the knight went to defend his own land, and then retired to become a monk.

The most famous Russian heroes and their exploits

Our history contains many famous names. Probably everyone knows the phrase: “And both glorious and strong heroes in the Russian land.” Although our people for the most part are not warlike and prefer to work on the land, from ancient times powerful heroes and defenders of the Fatherland have emerged from among them. These are Svyatogor, Mikula Selyaninovich, Danube Ivanovich, Peresvet, Sadko and many, many others. These heroes shed their own blood for their native land and stood up to defend peaceful people at the most troubled time.

It was about them that epics and songs were written. At the same time, over time, they corresponded many times. More and more facts and details were added to them. Even the character of the heroes underwent significant changes.

This process was especially influenced by acceptance. It divided our history and led to the denial and condemnation of everything old. Therefore, in the images of more ancient heroes one can now see negative features. We are talking about Svyatogor, Peresvet, Danube Ivanovich.

They were replaced by heroes of a new generation. And almost all of them served the princes, not the people. The most famous heroes of the Russian land are Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. It was they who were praised in songs and epics. They show off in the famous painting by Vasnetsov. They are the ones children know best, thanks to numerous cartoons and fairy tales. What did they do? And why are they always depicted together?

According to many historians, these three famous Russian heroes never met. According to some sources, Dobrynya lived in the 15th century, Ilya in the 12th century, and Alyosha, the youngest of the heroes, in the 13th century.

Viktor Mikhailovich depicted them all together as a symbol of the invincibility and indestructibility of the Russian people. The exploits of the 3 heroes were accomplished at different times, but historians agree that most of them are quite real. For example, the same Nightingale the Robber, the war with the Pechenegs, the Tatar prince Tugarin actually took place. This means that it is logical to assume that great deeds were also performed.

Alyosha Popovich and his exploits

In Vasnetsov’s painting, this young man is depicted with a bow and arrows, and near the saddle you can see a harp, which speaks of his cheerful disposition. Sometimes he is reckless, like any young guy, and sometimes he is cunning and wise, like a seasoned warrior. Like many heroes of the Russian land, this is rather a collective image. But this character also has a real prototype.

According to some reports, this is the son of the Rostov Orthodox priest Leonty. But the residents (Ukraine) also consider him a fellow countryman. Local legends say that he often visited local fairs and helped people.

According to another version, this is the famous Rostov hero Alexander. He lived in the 12th-13th century and was a prominent historical figure. Often his image is intertwined with another, no less noticeable character in epics, Volga Svyatoslavich.

The glorious exploits of Russian heroes will be incomplete without stories about how Alyosha fought with Tugarin himself in battle. This Polovtsian Khan is real historical figure Tugorkan. And in some epics Alyosha Popovich fought with him several times. This hero also earned fame in numerous internecine wars of that time. And he died in the famous Battle of Kalka (1223).

Ilya Muromets

This is perhaps the most famous and revered hero in Rus'. He embodies everything positive features There is very little confirmed information about him, but it is reliably known that he was canonized

This man spent his childhood and adolescence practically without movement, as he suffered from a serious paralytic disease. However, at the age of 30, Ilya was healed and fully returned to his feet. This fact was confirmed by many serious scientists who conducted research on the remains of the saint. Therefore, the exploits of the Russian hero Ilya Muromets begin at a fairly mature age.

This character became best known to all adults and children thanks to the epic, which tells about his battle with the Nightingale the Robber. This criminal controlled one of the main routes to Kyiv - the capital ancient Rus'. Prince Mstislav, who ruled at that time, instructed the warrior Ilya Muromets to accompany the next trade convoy. Having met the robber, the hero defeated him and cleared the road. This fact documented.

In addition to this, other victories of the Russian hero Ilya Muromets are known. The epics tell about the battle of the knight with the Poganous Idol. This may have been the name given to a nomadic rapist. There is also a story about the struggle with Baba Gorynka and her own son.

In his declining years, Ilya, having received a serious wound and tired of such a military life, retired to a monastery. But even there he could not find peace. Researchers note that the hero-monk died in battle at the age of 40-55.

Great Svyatogor

This is one of the most famous and mysterious heroes. Even the victories of the Russian hero Ilya Muromets pale before his glory. His name fully matches his appearance. He is usually represented as a mighty giant.

We can say that there are quite a few reliable epics about this hero. And they are all connected with death. However, Svyatogor says goodbye to life not in unequal battle with numerous enemies, and in a dispute with an irresistible and unknown force.

One of the legends says that the hero found a “saddle bag.” The hero tried to move it, but died without moving the thing from its place. As it turned out, this bag contained all the “heaviness of the earth.”

Another legend tells about the journey of Svyatogor with Ilya Muromets. This shows the change of “generations” of heroes. One day, friends find an empty coffin. The prophecy on it said: whoever is destined by fate will fall into it. It turned out to be great for Ilya. And when Svyatogor lay down in the coffin, the lid covered him, and he was never able to escape. Despite all the power of the giant, the tree did not succumb to him. The main feat of Svyatogor the hero is that he transferred all his power to Ilya Muromets.

Nikitich

This hero, depicted together with Ilya Muromets and Alyosha Popovich, is one of the most revered and famous in Rus'. In almost all epics he is inextricably linked with Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. At the same time, there is an opinion that the latter is his uncle. In history, Dobrynya is a prominent statesman, whose advice was listened to by many nobles.

However, in epics it is rather a collective image, which has the features of a mighty Russian knight. The exploits of the hero Dobrynya Nikitich consisted of fighting numerous enemy troops. But his main act is the battle with the Serpent Gorynych. The famous painting by Vasnetsov depicts the battle of the defender of the Russian land with a 7-headed dragon, but the plot was based on a real basis. The enemy used to be called “snake”. And the nickname “Gorynych” indicates his origin or habitat - the mountains.

There were also tales telling how Dobrynya found a wife. Historians note that she was a foreigner. Nastasya Nikulichna (in other versions - Mikulishna) had good physical characteristics. They began to measure their strength, and after the knight’s victory the girl became his wife.

Like all the exploits of epic heroes, the activities of Dobrynya Nikitich are connected with serving the Prince and the People. That is why they hold him up as an example, they compose fairy tales, songs and epics, portraying him as a hero and liberator.

Volkh Vseslavyevich: Prince-Wizard

This hero is known more as a sorcerer and a werewolf. He was the Prince of Kyiv. And the legends about him are like a fairy tale. Even the birth of the Magus is shrouded in mysticism. They say that his mother conceived him from Veles, who appeared to her in the form of an ordinary snake. The birth of the hero was accompanied by thunder and lightning. His childhood toys were a golden helmet and a damask club.

Like many Russian folk heroes, he often spent time with his squad. They say that at night he turned into a wild wolf and got food for the warriors in the forest.

The most famous legend about Volkhv Vseslavyevich - this is a story about the victory over the Indian king. One day the hero heard that evil was being planned against his Motherland. He used witchcraft and defeated the foreign army.

The real prototype of this hero is Prince Vseslav of Polotsk. He was also considered a sorcerer and a werewolf, he also took cities by cunning and mercilessly killed the inhabitants. And the snake played an important role in the life of the prince.

Historical facts and legends are mixed into one. And the feat of Volkhv Vseslavyevich began to be praised in epics, like other glorious feats of Russian heroes.

Mikula Selyaninovich - a simple peasant

This hero is one of the representatives of the heroes. His image is a reflection of the legends about the god-plowman, protector and patron of the Russian land and peasants. It was he who gave us the opportunity to cultivate fields and use the gifts of nature. He drove out the Destroying Giants.

According to legend, a hero lived on the Drevlyansky land. Unlike other ancient knights who came from princes, Mikula Selyaninovich represented the peasant class. He devoted his entire life to working in the fields. While other heroes and defenders of the Russian land fought with a sword in their hands. This makes sense, because all the benefits of the state and people come precisely from hard and daily work.

The most famous works that describe the character and life of Mikula Selyaninovich are the epics about Volga and Mikula, as well as about Svyatogor.

For example, in the story of the werewolf prince, the hero enlists in a squad assembled to resist the Varangian invasion. But before that, he laughs at Volga and his warriors: they can’t even pull out his plow, which is stuck in the ground.

The exploits of Russian heroes have always been sung by the people. But one can also find disdain for heroes who, having enormous power, cannot use it correctly. An example of such an attitude can be called the epic “Svyatogor and Mikula Selyaninovich.” Here two principles are contrasted - creative and destructive.

Svyatogor wanders around the world and does not know where to use his own strength. One day he meets Mikula with a bag that the warrior warrior cannot lift and breaks down. All the “heaviness of the earth” appears there. In this plot one can see the superiority of ordinary labor over military force.

Vasily Buslaev

This hero is not like the others. He is a rebel, always goes against the general opinion and order. Despite the superstitions of ordinary people, he does not believe in omens and predictions. At the same time, this is the image of a heroic protector.

Vasily Buslaev is from Veliky Novgorod. That is why there is so much local color in the epics about him. There are two stories about him: “Vasily Buslaevich in Novgorod” and “Vasily Buslaevich went to pray.”

His mischief and lack of control can be seen everywhere. For example, when choosing his squad, he arranges several extraordinary tasks. As a result, there are 30 young people who support Vasily in everything.

Buslaev’s deeds are not the exploits of Russian heroes, who followed the rules and obeyed the prince in everything, respecting the traditions and beliefs of ordinary people. He respected only strength. Therefore, his activity is a riotous life and fights with local men.

Peresvet

The name of this hero is closely connected with the Battle of Kulikovo Field. This is a legendary battle in which countless glorious warriors and boyars were killed. And Peresvet, like many other heroes, defenders of the Russian land, stood up to the enemy.

Scientists are still arguing whether it really happened. After all, according to legend, together with his brother Andrei, he was sent to help Dmitry Donskoy by Sergius of Radonezh himself. The feat of this hero was that it was he who inspired the Russian army to fight. He was the first to enter into battle with the representative of Mamaev’s horde, Chelubey. Practically without weapons or armor, Peresvet defeated the enemy, but fell dead along with him.

A study of earlier sources suggests the unreality of this character. In the Trinity Monastery, where Peresvet, according to history, was a novice, there are no records of such a person. In addition, it is known that Sergius of Radonezh could not meet with Prince Dmitry immediately before the battle.

But almost all the exploits of Russian heroes - one way or another - are partially invented or exaggerated by storytellers. Such stories raised morale, educated

Slavic history is rich in events, knowledge about which is passed on from generation to generation not only orally, but also in writing. Oral traditions are, as a rule, epics, including songs, tales, that is, everything that was composed directly by the people. Later, epics, legends and songs were written down and in this form have reached our time. In these legends, stories and essays about the lives of some absolutely fantastic people have been preserved, but in reality, in most cases, behind each of these heroes there were hidden real people who, many centuries ago, inhabited Slavic lands and were held in such high esteem by the people that legends began to be made about them. The basis of ancient Russian legends is, as a rule, heroes. If we talk about the etymology of the word “hero” itself, then it is interpreted as a demigod man, or a person endowed with the power of a god. The origins of this word have been the subject of intense debate for a long time. Versions have been put forward about its borrowing from Turkic languages, and even from Sanskrit. It is now generally accepted that the word “hero” was borrowed from the Tatar language.

Russian scientists distinguish two main categories of heroes - senior and junior. It is customary to rank Svyatogor, Mikula Selyaninovich, Volga Svyatoslavich, and Sukhan among the senior heroes. This group, according to scientists, is the personification of various natural phenomena, in most cases - threatening phenomena, hostile to the common man. The group of younger heroes includes the famous “Vasnetsov” trinity Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. They are also the personification of natural phenomena, but only those beneficial to humans.

Traditional folk writings became the reason that the heroes of the epic were no longer just heroes and brave warriors who opposed the invaders, but real fighters against evil spirits. Indeed, very often you can find works in which heroes have to fight against dragons, witches and other otherworldly creatures. In addition, heroes were also given a large role in the life of the people, because they were a kind of psychological subtext of the invincibility of Rus', evidence that among the common people there are people who are always ready to come to the defense native land from any misfortune... Let's consider the most striking among them.

One of the most mysterious characters of the Slavic epic is Svyatogor. This is a real giant that even the earth cannot support. He is endowed with enormous strength that even the most noble heroes do not dare to fight him. It is noteworthy that he does not take part in any battles and does not perform any feats. Its main purpose is limited to defeating enemies with its wisdom and fantastic strength. Hidden in the image of this hero is the philosophical meaning of the ancient Slavic population about the veneration of the holy hero simply for his existence.

Mikula Selyaninovich, despite the fact that he is not mentioned among the Kyiv heroes, was still one. He was the real pride of the Slavic people, because the plowman-hero was a real embodiment of the Russian spirit, which by its existence asserts that a simple farmer can fight with real heroes.

One more no less in a bright way is Volkh Vseslavevich. This is a fantastic epic character. According to legend, he was born from a serpent, so he grew up very quickly. Less than an hour and a half had passed since his birth when damask armor was put on him. He very quickly mastered magic and all kinds of sciences. He was considered a pagan priest, sorcerer and warrior.

Unlike Volkh, another famous epic hero, Danube Ivanovich, is a historically reliable character. His story begins from the very moment when he enters into a duel with Dobrynya Nikitich. According to legend, Ilya Muromets separates them, after which fraternization occurs. Later, Danube was looking for a bride for Prince Vladimir and, having killed the Lithuanian prince, takes away his daughter Apraxia. Another story related to the Danube is very interesting and entertaining. He is in love with Bogatyrka Nastasya, who agrees to become the wife only of the one who can defeat her. Of course, the Danube defeats her. When the wedding takes place, after a crazy argument, he kills his betrothed by shooting with a bow at the ring that was on Nastasya’s head. Unable to bear the grief, Danube kills himself.

Despite the fact that there are enough references to these heroes in literature, the first name that comes to mind for most people is Ilya Muromets. This hero had those traits that were mainly attributed to mythical and fantastic heroes - the miraculous acquisition of great strength. He was the son of simple peasant parents and was bedridden since childhood. This happens until the Kaliki wanderers appear. They order the boy to bring them water, and Ilya is healed. Moreover, he gains extraordinary strength. From that very moment, the heroic life of Ilya Muromets began, and his exploits became the basis for many epics and legends. However, the most famous epic is his battle with the Nightingale the Robber. By the way, until now scientists have not been able to come to a consensus about who Nightingale really was - either a fictional hero, or one of the warriors of the Mongol-Tatar army, or a simple robber living in Murom and ruined the merchants forced to pass through the Murom forests. At a certain period of time, Ilya comes to serve in Kyiv to save Rus' from numerous misfortunes and perform incredible and even miraculous feats.

At the same time, another hero lived with Ilya Muromets, whose name was Dobrynya Nikitich. He was born in Ryazan, but like Muromets, he served in Kyiv. The heroic story of Dobrynya begins from the moment when he defeated the Serpent Gorynych. The prince instructs him to engage in a fierce battle with the Serpent; on the way, the hero is overcome by little snakes, but Dobrynya manages to fulfill the prince’s order and free the girls and princes from the dragon caves.

Sometimes it seems that Dobrynya is a mythological hero. The story about the sorceress Marinka, who bewitched the hero, also looks a little fantastic. However, Dobrynya, with the help of her mother, a fellow witch, manages to defeat Marinka’s spell and deal with her. But its history contains not only a large number of fantastic tales. IN Kievan Rus he carried out more important assignments, appearing before readers as a brave, wise warrior, who, among other things, is also the first assistant of Ilya Muromets.

Another famous hero, Alyosha Popovich, according to legend, was from the city of Rostov. He ended up in Kyiv completely by accident. In an open field, the hero found a stone on which three roads were indicated: one led to Chernigov, the other to Murom, and the third to Kyiv. He also begins service at the court of Prince Vladimir. Perhaps the most famous story associated with Popovich is the tale of his fight with Tugarin (this, according to the epic, is a fictional character, which is why he sometimes bears the nickname Zmeevich and is presented as a monster). Tugarin is a foreign invader who can swallow an entire swan at a time, and is carried by servants on a golden stand. And Alyosha Popovich is always a young, brave and even sometimes reckless warrior.

There is always a connection between Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich and Dobrynya Nikitich. There is also a great similarity between them not only in characters, but also in adventures and some life events.

And in conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about such heroes as Vasily Buslaev and Nikita Kozhemyaka. They were all real people. Vasily Buslaev was from Novgorod. By nature, this man was always a rebel and even a drunkard. He inherited his heroic strength from his father. However, the young man uses it differently from the rest of the heroes. On the contrary, he violates the laws of the city in every possible way, recruiting a squad of people like him (the main selection criteria are the ability to drink a bucket of wine or withstand a blow to the head with a club). Together with his squad, Vasily does not engage in the fight against enemies and invaders, but only gets drunk in taverns and fights. According to legends, he died as recklessly as he lived - on the way back from Jerusalem, he hit his head on a stone, falling from his horse (and it was written on the stone that it was forbidden to ride over it...).

Unlike Vasily, Nikita Kozhemyaka was a real warrior who served the Kyiv prince Vladimir. Together with him, Kozhemyaka went to battle against the Pechenegs, fighting one-on-one with the strongman and defeating him. This victory was the beginning of the victory of the Russian army over the invaders. In different periods, Nikita Kozhemyaka is presented either as a simple artisan, or as a real hero who is in service in Kyiv.

To believe that the Slavic heroes existed in reality, or to adhere to the opinion that they were exclusively fictional characters is a personal matter for everyone. However, this is not the main thing. And the main thing is that in any case, they played a big role in the history of the Slavs, becoming symbols of former times.

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However, here the word old does not mean “burdened with years,” but only mature, experienced in military affairs.

Military valor of heroes

The totality of military virtues and a kind, honest disposition constitute main features a Russian hero, but physical prowess alone is not enough; all the activities of the hero must also be of a religious and patriotic nature. In general, people idealize their heroes, and if they hyperbolically imagine their physical qualities: strength, agility, heavy gait, deafening voice, long sleep, then still they do not have that brutal gluttony of other monstrous giants who appear in epics, who do not belong to the category of heroes .

The element of the miraculous plays a large role in the destinies of heroes: they often meet with beneficial and hostile supernatural forces, but in general, in epics one can still see a desire to smooth out the miraculous element, which does not play such a role in them as, for example, in fairy tales, and has its purpose, according to Maykov, is to give the heroes a more ideal character.

Origin of the words “hero” and “knight”

It has long been suggested that it was borrowed from the languages ​​of the Altaic language family, where it is in various forms: bagatur, bahadir, bagadur, Batur, hero, Bator, baatar. But there were opponents (Orest Miller and others) of this opinion: they proceeded from the position that the word bagadur is not Turkic-Mongolian, but borrowed from Sanskrit bhagadhara(possessing happiness, successful), and that as a result of this the Russian “hero” also goes back to the ancestral beginning. Others directly derived “hero” from “God” through “rich” (Shchepkin, Buslaev).

None of these opinions, however, should be accepted: the Mongolian word (modern Mong. baatar) may actually be borrowed from Sanskrit, and yet Russian word not indigenous, but also borrowed; the Sanskrit word would correspond to the native Russian “bogodar”, and in no way “bogatyr”. “Bogatyr” cannot come from the word “boga-”, since there is no suffix -yr. The fact that it is not found in other words speaks against the originality of the words “hero.” Slavic languages, with the exception of Polish (bohater), which borrowed it from Russian, as evidenced by the presence of the sound h and hard r at the end of the word. Other explanations are historical. Khalansky thinks (“Great Russian epics”) that the original form of the word was “bogatyr” and that it was originally used in the meaning of “Tatar governor” and a title attached to proper names in the meaning of the present “lord”; Buslaev has already pointed this out.

The assumption that the word “bogatyr” was borrowed from the Turkic or Mongolian language is now accepted by all Russian scientists, although, on the other hand, old false explanations of the etymology of the word are found quite often, especially in textbooks on the history of Russian literature. From the above it does not at all follow that in the pre-Mongol period there was no concept in Rus' corresponding to the current concept of hero. It only corresponded to other words in the language, for example: polyanic, raspberry, (zh.r. - polyanica, polenitsa); khorobr (later replaced under the influence of books by the Church Slavic word brave), khorobor, khorober, playful, daring. Then their own word was replaced by a foreign one under the influence of psychological factors: in the eyes of the people, Russian heroes, bearing the same name as the Tatar-Mongol ones, were not inferior to these latter, they were opposed to them. The word “hero” itself appears for the first time in Sernitsky’s book, published without indicating the place in the city “Descriptio veteris et novae Poloniae cum divisione ejusdem veteri et nova”, which says: “Rossi... de heroibus suis, quos Bohatiros id est semideos vocant , aliis persuadere conantur.”

There are also two versions of the origin of the word “knight”. According to the first version, the word comes from the ancient German word Witing. According to the second version, the word “knight” comes from the Old Norse “vikingr” - in Slavic languages, the Scandinavian suffix “-ing” turned into “-ez”; accordingly, the Eastern Slavs pronounced the word “vikingr” as “knight”.

Epics

Khalansky, as we have already said, completely disagrees with this division, who divides heroes into types belonging to the pre-Tatar, Tatar and post-Tatar, or Moscow era: to the first group he classifies Dobrynya Nikitich, Ivan Danilovich and Alyosha Popovich; to the second: the heroes at the outpost, Idolishche, Ilya Muromets, Vasily Ignatievich and the heroes who “transferred”; to the third: Mikulu Selyaninovich, Khoten Bludovich, Churil Plenkovich, Dyuk Stepanovich, Danil Lovchenin, forty caliks with a calico, Solovy Budimirovich. In addition, the same author divides the heroes according to the regions in which, in his opinion, they were created by the people; Thus, in the Kyiv region he counts only Vladimir himself, Dobrynya, as well as Volga Svyatoslavich, Stavr Godinovich, Ivan Danilovich, Churila Plenkovich and partly Ivan Godinovich.

Review of the most important epic heroes of Kievan Rus

These are the general views on heroes; Let us now review the views of different researchers about the main representatives of the Kyiv epic heroism in the following order: here the views of all directions will be compared, which we have already discussed in general outline talked.

Svyatogor

Svyatogor, a terrible giant, whom even the earth cannot support, lies on the mountain in inaction when Ilya comes to him. Other epics tell of his marriage, his encounter with earthly cravings, and his death in a magical grave. In some epics, Svyatogor is replaced by Samson, who is named after his patronymic Kolyvanovich, Samoilovich or Vasilyevich. Many traits of the personality and life of the biblical hero Samson were transferred to Svyatogor, but in general, epics about Svyatogor have not yet been developed much. Everyone, not even excluding Miller, admits that biblical influence was strong in the creation of his image, but they are unable to explain the origin of other, non-biblical character traits.

Miller considers his name to be purely Kyiv, coming from “saint” and “mountain”, denoting a hero the size of a mountain; in his opinion, initially Svyatogor served as the personification of huge, motionless clouds that covered the entire sky. In this person, according to Miller, who knows how to “mix the earthly with the heavenly,” there is something elemental, titanic, hostile to the earth. Over time, under the influence of the Bible, the original myth about Svyatogor began to change, and this was followed by its complete identification with the face of Samson, who is a later stand for Svyatogor and partly a prefix to him in some details.

According to Veselovsky (“Bulletin of Hebrews,” 1875, April), there are some undoubted similarities between Svyatogor and Anika the Warrior, the hero of one verse of book origin, depending on the Byzantine poem about Digenis. Based on the same verse, Petrov (“Works of the Kyiv Spiritual Academy” 1871, X) brings Svyatogor closer to Yegor the Brave. Wollner also sees two words in the name of Svyatogor: holy Egor, thus the name of Svyatogor would have grown on Christian soil; Miller rebels against this, saying that there is no internal connection between Svyatogor and Yegor the Brave. Be that as it may, there are places where such a comparison occurs: Yegor Svyatogor. Wollner, explaining the origin of some details in the epic, brings them closer to the poem about Yegor in a few, however, episodes.

Zhdanov explains the expression Yegor Svyatogor in such a way that the first name serves as a real name, and the second as an epithet. He considers the epic name of the hero “Svyatogor” to be the same epithet, which also occurs in the form “hero of Svyatogorsk”; his real name was Samson (cf. “On the literary history of Russian epic poetry,” p. 164). Thus, in the person of Svyatogor, according to Zhdanov’s controversial version, we would have united several persons: Samson, Yegor, Anika, Moses, the Nart hero, etc., and according to Miller, also a proto-Slavic deity who controlled the gigantic clouds.

Sukhan, or Sukhmantiy, or Sukhman Damantievich

There is one epic about Sukhan, or Sukhmantiy and Sukhman Damantievich, which tells how Sukhan, offended by Vladimir, takes his own life. Bessonov sees in him mythical creature, Wollner sees in the epic the sentimental influence of the latest written literature.

Kolyvan

From Ivan Kolyvanovich and Kolyvan Ivanovich, who initially constituted one person, only names remained in the epics, by which, of course, it is difficult to judge with any certainty.

Danube Ivanovich

Danube Ivanovich is one of the heroic matchmakers; according to Yagich (Archiv I), he represents the personification of the Danube River, as is proven by the epithet “quiet” that constantly accompanies him in the epic. Miller also sees in him the personification of the river, but not the present Danube, but the river in general; he believes that the word Danube was originally a common noun. This river was not earthly, but heavenly, it was generally a container of water, clouds, therefore the hero, strictly speaking, is a mythical creature, the personification of a cloud.

Already the matchmaking of the Danube, according to Miller, indicates the mythical character of the hero. The everyday side of the epic differs from all other epics in the antiquity of the general flavor: morals here have not yet been softened by settled life and agriculture. On the other hand, in the Ipatiev Chronicle under 1281 and 1287. there is a mention of the governor of Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich Danube. Aksakov sees the Danube exclusively as a warrior: “The Danube is not like other heroes; obviously a stranger from other countries, exuberant in spirit, he is distinguished by some special proud posture.” Danube's marriage to Nastasya is reminiscent of Sigurd's matchmaking with Brünnhilde.

According to Stasov, the epic about the Danube preserved a cosmic elemental myth, and in this he agrees with Miller. He differs from him in that he does not see in the Danube a memory of a mythical creature inherited by the Russians from their Aryan ancestors, but simply a type borrowed from mythological Asian tales. Thus, he brings Danube closer to Soma, the moon god, the hero of one story in Harivansa, with Bgrigu from the Mahabharata, with Brahman Saktideva from the collection of Somadeva; Thus, according to Stasov, India should be recognized as the fatherland of the Danube.

Ilya Muromets

A number of younger heroes begin with their main representative, the guardian of the Russian land, Ilya Muromets. Compared to other heroes, a huge amount of literature is devoted to him, but despite this, the question about him also remains far from clear. We will limit ourselves here to pointing out the more original views of scientific researchers regarding this hero, views that are extremely diverse and contradictory to each other, since some see in Ilya a mythical creature, others see in him a representative of the Russian peasant class, others consider him a borrowed type and, finally, The 4th look at it as a mixture of heterogeneous elements: mythical, historical, everyday and foreign. Its very name Muromets causes disagreement as to whether it is original or not.

The oldest mention of him is in the “Message letter” of the Orsha elder Philon Kmita Chernobylsky to Ostafy Volovich, castellan of Trotsky, written in Orsha 1574, August 5th day: “Ilii Murawlenina i Solowia Budimirowicza” we read in this note; then Erich Lasota also has “Morowlin” written on it. This is the original form of this word, which only later became “Muromets” under the influence of the hero’s association with the city of Murom. O. Miller brings Ilya Muromets together with these names in a story borrowed from the notebook of the disrobed Edinoverie monk Grigory Pankeyev. In any case, these considerations do not have sufficient evidence, so most researchers refrain from making a decisive verdict; So, for example, Khalansky says that it is difficult to decide how this word was originally pronounced, although he adds that in any case it is impossible to stand for the antiquity of the form Muromets. V. Kallash definitely speaks out in this regard, which takes as the correct form: Muromets, Morovlyanin (“Ethnographic Review”, 1890).

There are many epics about Ilya, they make up a whole cycle, united by his personality; in these epics he is presented in more or less the same light, although even here a slight difference is noticed in the shading of some of his character traits; so, for example, Ilya, who frightens the robbers without causing them any harm, and Ilya, who kills his own son, are not the same.

Since popular fantasy connected Elijah the Prophet with Perun, it was very natural to transfer the features of Perun, the thunder god, to Ilya Muromets, who bore the name of Elijah the Prophet.” If we accept the mythical significance of Ilya, which Miller gives him, then it is much more rational to assume something completely opposite, namely, that Ilya Muromets, as the thunder god, initially bore a completely different name and only then, due to his rapprochement with Elijah the prophet, took over the latter’s current name Name. Orest Miller quite definitely speaks out about the mythological significance of Ilya Muromets: he says that although Ilya becomes the head of the younger heroes, understood already in the zemstvo historical sense, nevertheless, at the basis of any of his adventures a basic, albeit obscured, can almost always be seen. myth.

He was originally a thunder deity, then became an agricultural deity, and finally a heroic farmer. The main myth was covered in thick layers of historical and everyday layers, and under their influence, the character of Ilya changed; where, for example, Ilya moves from a defensive position to an offensive one, he is a reflection of the fate of the Russian land. According to Miller, Ilya, of the other heroes, is closer to Potyk and Dobrynya. Other researchers of epics do not speak so generally and break the epics about Muromets into separate plots and try to explain each moment separately. The most important moments of the epics about Ilya are as follows: Ilya sits for thirty years; receives strength from passersby (according to some epics, from Svyatogor), performs the first peasant work, goes to Svyatogor; Having received his parents' blessing, he goes to Kyiv; On the way, he captures Nightingale the Robber, liberates Chernigov from the Tatars and meets the villagers, to whom he speaks about Alyosha Popovich.

Arriving in Kyiv, he feasts with Vladimir and Alyosha throws a knife at him; then Ilya - at the heroic outpost along with his other “crusader brothers”; fight against Polenitsa, Sokolnik, Zhidovin; bad relationship with Vladimir; attack of the Tatars on Kyiv, Kalin, Idolishche; battle with the Tatars, heroes are placed together with Ilya; three “trips” of Ilya Muromets. Not all aspects have been equally developed in the literature: relatively many studies have been devoted to some (for example, the battle with his son Sokolnik), while almost no one has yet studied others in detail.

The first fact from the life of Ilya - that he sits for a long time - Miller explains in a mythological way: a kind, charitable deity must remain inactive throughout the winter, and only the honey drink of the passers-by, that is, the warm rain pouring from the spring clouds , gives this deity miraculous power. Khalansky compares the epics in which power passes to Ilya from Svyatogor with the Nart Caucasian legends, and if we accept his explanation, then Ilya is here a hero borrowed from the Caucasus. Ilya Stasov compares the youth of Ilya with the youth of the heroes of the Indian collection of tales entitled. "Mahavansi" and with Rustem's youth in "Shahname".

Ilya’s meeting with the Nightingale the Robber has been discussed several times: Stasov derives the entire epic telling about Ilya’s trip to Kiev and this meeting, of course, from the East, namely, he sees in it a reflection of the story of the Siberian Tatars about the hero of Tan, known in several editions; according to this, the Nightingale the Robber would simply be a Tatar monster, the black seven-headed bull Ielbegen. Other scientists have talked about this same issue. Miller initially saw in the Nightingale simply a singer like Bayan, whom the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” calls the Nightingale of the old time; Buslaev sees in this name the same thing as in the epithet “prophetic”; Afanasyev considers the nightingale’s singing a symbol of spring thunder and, thus, looks at our robber as a mythical creature. Melnikov compares the epic with a semi-book legend in a 17th-century manuscript. about the strong Mordvins, who bore the names of birds, including the nightingale.

According to Yagich (Archiv, I), everything that relates to the robber’s whistle is a later work, caused by the consonance of his name with the name of the bird; initially it was someone else’s hero, who did not really fit into the cycle of Russian heroes, and from there an element of hostile relations towards the Russian land appeared in the epic. But he fits well with such heroes as Anika, Samson, Malafey, Egor-Svyatogor. Further, Yagich believes that Nightingale the Robber and Nightingale Budimirovich not only have a common name, but also common origin in some legend about Solomon, perhaps in the legend about Solomon the sorcerer.

How plausible this rapprochement is, we will discuss below, under Solovy Budimirovich. O. Miller in his “Ilya Muromets” speaks about the Nightingale somewhat differently than in “Experience”: he considers the Nightingale the Robber to be the personification of such natural phenomena as wind, whirlwind, storm. The whistle of the storm and the nightingale is here the link connecting the name with the phenomenon it denotes. The nightingale, as a representative of pure bad weather, avoided the fate of other heroes who suffered historical influence, and to this day has remained a pure mythical type. As for the heroic outpost, according to Khalansky, it is located due to the fact that in the 14th century. Border fortresses and guardhouses began to be established, and border guards were installed. At this time, the image of heroes standing at the outpost and protecting the borders of the Holy Russian land took shape in the epic epic. About Polenitsa, the same scientist believes that this name came about in this way: to mean a giant, the word polonik was used (similar in origin to the current “giant”); according to Sreznevsky, it was used in Russian books as a constant explanatory epithet of the word giant; other forms of this word were: polnik, ispolnik; Khalansky thinks that the nominative case of the masculine plural - polnitsy, polenitsy - began to be felt by the people as the same case of the hitherto non-existent word polenitsa; it was first used as a common noun for masculine and female, and then became the proper name of the giantess who fought with Ilya and then became his wife. Memories of such a struggle between a hero and a hero were especially vividly reflected in German epic literature, although, however, there is no shortage of them in other literatures.

The same plot about the fight with the heroic woman is repeated in epics about other heroes, for example. about Dobrynya, Danube and friends. The episode about Ilya’s struggle with his son can only be considered using the comparative method, since for historical conclusions We don't have any materials. But the comparative method can also lead us to different conclusions: either we can see in this episode a reflection of Western European legends in the form of a song about Hildebrant and Gadubrant, or we can look for its source together with Stasov in Asia, in the poetic history of Rustem Shahname, or, finally, with O. Miller sees in this epic the pan-Aryan heritage of mythical content, preserved in the Russian edition by tradition, and not by borrowing. All in. Miller compares Ilya, struggling with his son, with the heroes of two fairy tales: Estonian (Kivyi-al) and Kyrgyz (Gali); in his opinion, both of these tales, like the Russian epic, may have arisen under the influence of Shahnameh, and in this case, all these heroes serve as a reflection of Rustem (“Ethnogr. Review,” 1890, 2). Russian epics end in two ways: tragically and not tragically; the first ending is ancient, the second is softened under the influence of new everyday and religious principles. The main mythical meaning of the episode, according to O. Miller, is this: Ilya kills his son - this means that lightning cuts through the cloud.

Khalansky considers Ilya’s meeting with Zhidovin to be a modification of the meeting with his son; the latter is also the son of Ilya, but only his recognition is missing in the epic. The matter is explained in this way: the son of Ilya bears different names in different epics, so it could happen that in one of them he is called Zhidovin. But after this, other changes began, already in the content of the epic itself. Zhidovin could not be the son of a Christian, and therefore the episode about recognizing him as a son was simply released; and since the word “Jew” in the sense of an enemy was first used in book legends, Khalansky sees book influence in this person. Veselovsky does not agree with him, who in his “Small Notes” (“Journal of Min. Nar. Ave.”, 1889, V) indicates a historical basis for Zhidovin.

Bogatyrs of the Novgorod type

It remains for us to say a few more words about the heroes of the Novgorod cycle, who in all respects differ from the heroes of Kyiv, since they contain features that characterize them as non-Russian, alien types. Almost all researchers of epics, not even excluding O. Miller, recognize a very strong foreign element in Novgorod epics. There are only three of these heroes: Vasily Buslaev, Gavrilo Aleksich and Sadko, a rich guest. The first of them serves as the ideal of boundless, unrestrained prowess and has much in common with the rampaging Norman heroes. More or less extensive studies by Wollner, Stasov and Veselovsky are devoted to Sadko. According to O. Miller, Sadko expresses an alien element that disagrees with the Russian absorption of the individual into the community: he represents the ideal of personal wealth, thus similar to the southern Russian type of Churila and Duke; the difference lies in the secondary character traits and actions of these individuals; there is nothing mythical in Sadko, but he is only surrounded by a mythical element in the person of the sea king and others.