These are violent actions (persecution, destruction, hostage-taking, murder, etc.) with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, competitors - presentation. Features of the formation of radical movements in Islam
Political terrorism is a method of political struggle that is associated with the implementation of violent armed actions with the aim of intimidating and suppressing political opponents. Its goal is to incite fear among the population and, as a result, exert an influence on the authorities. Therefore, today the most common method of terror is violence not against those in power, but against peaceful people with the obligatory demonstration of the catastrophic results of terror. The number of such acts is constantly increasing, they are becoming more and more cruel and more people turn out to be their victims.
The causes of political terrorism in the modern world are:
Economic and financial crises in different countries peace, unemployment, especially among Muslim youth, who do not have the opportunity for socio-economic self-realization and become a tool in the hands of extremists;
Huge inequality in living standards between developing and developed countries, as well as attempts to impose a certain model of production and consumption on all countries with different histories and traditions;
The interest of the ruling elite of a number of states in terrorism as a weapon of foreign and domestic policy. Terrorism turns out to be a convenient tool in the fight against opposition forces and inconvenient political regimes;
The presence of “hot spots” in the world, which are breeding grounds for violence and indicate the powerlessness of any people to solve their problems through peaceful political means;
Insufficient efficiency of the state apparatus and the adoption of ill-considered political decisions, etc.
Terrorist organizations are highly organized on an international scale. They operate outside the field of international law, they are difficult to associate with the territory of any one country, they are capable of carrying out terrorist acts in both developing and developed countries. Therefore, the problem of terrorism is an international problem.
Terrorism has now become a powerful force thanks to an extensive system of basing, training infrastructure and self-financing. The source of income for numerous terrorist organizations is the control of the drug business, prostitution, racketeering, arms trafficking, smuggling, gambling, etc. The deployment of such activities is possible only if there are structures for money laundering - in the form of controlled banks, firms, manufacturing enterprises. Such “laundering” is most often carried out in states where government control is weakened.
There are close economic and military ties between various terrorist organizations; there is a mechanism of mutual assistance and mutual assistance, which increases its danger.
Analysis of terrorist attacks in foreign countries and in Russian Federation indicates that the demands put forward by terrorists represent a wide range of aspirations, ranging from attempts to obtain a certain amount of money or the release of imprisoned like-minded people to attacks on changing the existing system, violating state integrity or the sovereignty of the country.
In political terms, political terrorism achieves its goals, as a rule, by force. The minimum plan is to force the authorities to make significant concessions and dictate their terms to them. The maximum plan is to change the existing political system, existing social structures and institutions. In the field of culture, political terrorism manifests itself in the propaganda of violence, cruelty, and cynicism.
In the sphere of interethnic and inter-confessional relations, political terrorism finds expression in terrorist methods of struggle used during national and religious clashes, in armed conflicts; manifests itself in terrorist acts on the territory of another state or against non-indigenous people, representatives of other ethnic or religious groups. This leads to the incitement of enmity and hatred between nations and nationalities.
In the field economic relations Political terrorism causes great damage to the financial stability of the state, undermines economic foundations, and contributes to the implementation of the experience accumulated by terrorists in the field of money laundering.
Jurisprudence helps create a legal framework for the fight against terrorism. The Russian system of countering terrorist activities took shape in a very short period of time: formally since 1998, after its legislative registration, and in practice, based on the experience of the failures of the first Chechen company. The Federal Law of April 3, 1995 “On the Bodies of the Federal Security Service in the Russian Federation” was adopted immediately after the entry of Federal troops into the Chechen Republic.
Defining the concept of political terrorism is a rather complex problem. This depends on many reasons. Firstly, the complexity and diversity of the phenomenon, its rapid evolution in time and space. Secondly, political terrorism is the subject of study in several disciplines. Thirdly, the frequent and free use of the term “terrorism” in the socio-political sphere hinders the scientific understanding of the phenomenon. Fourthly, political terrorism is mistakenly classified as such phenomena as extremism, war, fascism, sabotage, partisan movement, etc.
At the moment, there are several schools abroad that interpret the concept of “terrorism” based on one or another scientific approach. As a result, several directions for solving this problem have been developed. Proponents of the first approach were B. Jenkins and W. Laguer.
B. Jenkins proposed a definition that began to be used by security agencies: “terrorism is the use or threat of use of force aimed at achieving political change.”
W. Lacker called terrorism “the illegal use of force against innocent people to achieve political goals,” and adds. W. Lacker and B. Jenkins' interpretation of a universal definition that would satisfy all stakeholders: government officials, scientists, analysts and employees law enforcement was not successful.
The second approach to studying this problem is to focus on the legal aspects of the definition. For example, in Germany, terrorism refers to the use of criminal acts to achieve political goals or a method that creates political disorder.
Proponents of the third approach to solving the problem of defining terrorism criticize the first approach for being moralistic and emotional definitions. They criticize the second approach for its narrow legal focus, which does not exhaust all aspects related to terrorism. From the point of view of M. Crenshaw, the definition of terrorism is as follows: “Terrorism is socially and politically unacceptable violence aimed at an innocent symbolic target in the name of achieving a psychological effect.”
A. Schmidt tried to give general definition phenomenon. As a result, he came up with: “terrorism is a violent method or the threat of its use, used by non-governmental conspiratorial individuals, groups or organizations in peacetime, carried out through discrete actions aimed at various objects with specific goals or; effect."
Let's turn to the domestic scientific literature. In big Soviet encyclopedia we read: “Terrorism (terrorism) is violent actions (persecution, destruction, hostage-taking, murder, etc.) with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, competitors, imposing a certain line of behavior.” The modern dictionary of foreign words notes the non-identity of the concepts of terror and terrorism, giving two definitions: “Terror is the policy of intimidation, the suppression of political opponents by violent measures” and “Terrorism is the policy and practice of terror.”
Terrorism researcher E.P. Kozhushko is more right when, in his book “Modern Terrorism: Analysis of Main Directions,” he contrasts these two concepts: “Terror is a policy of repression by the state, relying on the power of its security institutions,” and “terrorism is violence carried out by political groups. Weapons of terror - repression, weapons of terrorism - terrorist attack».
In the domestic scientific literature I would also like to note the book by E.G. Lyakhov "Terrorism and interstate relations." It represents the most solid Scientific research, full of reflections and well-founded conclusions of the author, as well as a large amount of factual material. The monograph contains a detailed review of the literature, at the end of which the following conclusion is made: “In the literature, terror, terrorism, a terrorist act is understood as the intimidation by violent methods of a political opponent, that is, a specific individual(persons) performing state, political or other public functions.”
For a more detailed definition of political terrorism, it is necessary to consider two controversial issue. The first concerns such a factor of political influence as the national liberation movement, which uses terrorist methods of struggle. The second question concerns the concept of “state terrorism”.
On the first question, an example is the biased assessment by a number of states, including the United States, of events in the North Caucasus regarding the “national liberation movement”, which openly uses terrorist methods of struggle. Russian security forces are participating in the anti-terrorist operation in Chechnya. Russian officials and politicians overwhelmingly approve of military measures against Chechen militants. And the Chechen " field commanders“, in turn, they claim that they are fighting for the independence and freedom of the Republic of Ichkeria.
On the second question, which concerns the concept of “state terrorism,” W. Lacker’s assertion that terrorism is defined as “the use or threat of use of non-state violence” is highly questionable. If terrorism used to mean actions against politicians or any specific political group, then today we also observe terrorism against society or against the state (states), carried out by well-organized and technically equipped terrorist corporations, including state and international ones. This approach defines this type of terrorism as a state-sponsored activity, as a deliberate nationalist policy of the enemy.
For a universal definition of the phenomenon of “political terrorism” it is necessary to more clearly identify a number of its distinctive features.
The first sign is the conduct of armed actions not against the enemy’s armed forces, but against the civilian population, in order to put pressure on the political authorities and the elite.
The second sign is secrecy and anonymity, secret preparation of terrorist acts.
The third sign is that terrorism is often characterized by a focus on sensation. A terrorist act is a spectacular performance, dramatic in its cruelty.
The fourth sign is primitive ideology. For terrorists, armed struggle becomes more important than the process of ideological justification. Although it should be noted that there is now a trend for terrorism to increasingly use ideological justification for its activities, using for this, first of all, the Internet.
political terrorism armed enemy
Terrorism - the term comes from the Latin word terror, meaning fear, horror. It denotes violent actions (persecution, destruction, hostage-taking, murder, etc.) with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, competitors, and imposing a certain line of behavior. There are individual and group terror (repressions of dictatorial and totalitarian regimes). In the 70–90s of the 20th century, international terrorism became widespread. This definition of terrorism is given in the popular encyclopedic dictionary, published in Moscow in 1999, the meaning of the corresponding articles in other dictionaries is similar, and the content of the concepts “terror” and “terrorism” in them turns out to be almost identical.
“Terror” in Russian is defined as intimidation of an enemy through physical violence, up to and including destruction, and terrorism is the practice of terror. The actions of terrorists are not always associated with murder, but always involve violence, coercion, and threat. The goals can also be different: purely selfish, based on the thirst for profit; political, including from narrow corporate ones to the overthrow of the state system. Terrorist acts are also committed for the sake of an idea. Therefore, those who share the ideas of a terrorist often call him a patriot, freedom fighter, oppositionist, etc.
Terrorism can also be expressed in the destruction or attempted destruction of any objects: aircraft, administrative buildings, homes, sea vessels, life support facilities, etc. One of the main means of achieving goals for terrorists is intimidation, creating an atmosphere of fear and insecurity your life and that of your loved ones. Destruction of property by terrorist groups, even if it does not result in loss of life, can also be classified as terrorism. Terrorism is a crime that can be committed by one person against one or more people or objects (terrorist act). For terrorism as an international crime, committing a criminal act alone is currently not typical.
A more detailed and legally defined definition of terrorism is contained in the Federal Law “On Combating Terrorism”, as well as in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation:
“Terrorism is the ideology of violence and the practice of influencing decision-making by authorities state power, local government bodies or international organizations related to intimidation of the population and (or) other forms of illegal violent actions"
Main signs of terrorism:
1) use of violence and intimidation;
3) focus on achieving political goals, weakening political opponents, strengthening one’s own political positions;
4) public danger associated with the creation of an immediate threat to the life and freedom of people;
5) the use of conspiracy as a necessary condition for the existence of terrorist structures and their actions;
6) an indirect way of achieving the planned final political result through committing attacks on the life and health of people
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Basic ideaterror
Translated from Latin, the word “terror” is fear, horror. The main goal of terrorists is to induce a state of terror not only in their hostage victims, but also in all other people. The timely book “Psychology of Terrorism” (2002) was written by D.V. Olshansky. “Perhaps, against the backdrop of the terrorist attacks in New York on September 11, 2001,” he notes, “it will take a long time to search and it will be difficult to find any other phenomenon, information about which is not available.” Lately spread so quickly and instantly dominated the consciousness of billions of people around the world. U international terrorism it happened much faster than the computer revolution or the introduction of photocopiers. Everyone was in shock” (Olshansky, 2002, p. 8).
Terror is a policy of intimidation, the suppression of political opponents by violent methods. Terrorists strive to cause a situation of chaos in the political and economic structures of society, to provoke a state of fear in the mass consciousness. The actions of terrorists are aimed at creating panic in society, disorienting and disorganizing the work of government bodies.
“Extremism and terrorism,” note L. Drobizheva and E. Pain, “cannot be compared with a virus that humanity picked up from somewhere. This is his internal illness, generated mainly by disharmonious development in the social, political and cultural fields" (Drobizheva, Pain. Political terrorism and extremism / Century of Tolerance - 2003, p. 33). They name four main sources of terrorism and extremism.
Firstly, terrorism and extremism manifest themselves in societies that have embarked on the path of transformations, drastic social changes, or modern societies postmodern with a pronounced polarization of the population along ethnosocial lines. Marginal and immobile groups of the population become participants in terrorist actions.
Secondly, social contrasts, a sharp stratification of society into rich and poor, and not just poverty or a low level of socio-economic status provoke aggression and create the ground for terrorism.
Thirdly, manifestations of extremism increase in the initial periods of social modernization. At the final stages of successful changes, manifestations of extremism and terrorism decline sharply.
Fourthly, unfinished urbanization, specific forms of industrialization, changes in the ethno-demographic structure of society, especially unregulated migration, give rise to extremism and intolerance in society.
Fifthly, important role The prevalence of authoritarian political regimes plays a role in the spread of ethnic and religious extremism and terrorism in the Islamic world. They provoke violence as a form of resolving political contradictions and give it the character of a cultural norm (Drobizheva, Pain, 2003, pp. 28-32).
When studying the psychological problems of terrorism, we are faced with four questions:
1. Psychology of terrorists.
2. Psychology of interaction between terrorists and hostages.
3. Psychology of hostages - the main victims of terrorist actions.
4. The psychology of negotiating with terrorists.
Psychology of people carrying out terrorist acts for scientific psychology The problem is quite new. Empirical studies of the personality of terrorists have not been carried out, and not only because of the difficulty of such work, but because of the lack of social order.
However, humanity has faced the problem of terrorism throughout its history. D.V. Olshansky considers as an example of the first terrorist acts the terrible punishments that the Creator sent to Egypt. It is known from the Bible that “more than two and a half thousand years ago, ten terrorist attacks, referred to as the “Egyptian Executions,” were carried out successively on Egyptian territory over the course of almost three months. They used biological, bacteriological, environmental, chemical and other means mass destruction. This was done to intimidate the pharaoh, who kept the Jewish ethnic group in slavery, but the people of Egypt suffered enormous sacrifices” (Olshansky, 2002, p. 28). Thus, a clear example of the terrifying impact on mass consciousness was given by the Lord God himself. According to the Old Testament, the objects of the “Plagues of Egypt” were all the inhabitants and all Natural resources countries - water, vegetation, crop yields, animals. People and livestock died in large numbers from poisoning with water turned “into blood” and suffered from an invasion of toads, midges, and dog flies. As a result of the “pestilence” sent to the country, there was a massive loss of livestock. The destruction of people, animals, grass and trees with hail and fire was completed by the locusts. The last tenth execution was mass destruction“destroying angel” of all the firstborn in the land of Egypt (according to: Olshansky, 2002, p. 29). Humanity has never known such a terrorist act either before or after this violent act.
Terrorist acts occurred later, and they were committed not by individuals, but by crowds. O. Cabanes and L. Nass note that a crowd can be seized by “sadical madness,” and then the crowd is not a victim of terror, but itself acts as the most brutal killers and rapists. During the massacre of lepers, on Sicilian Vespers, on St. Bartholomew's Night, during the Armenian massacres and Jewish pogroms, with equal cruelty and bloodthirstiness, the animal instinct awakened in the people in the crowd. The beatings on St. Bartholomew's Night were characterized by cases of desecration and mutilation of corpses, rape and torture of victims, and there were also cases of cannibalism. The history of France is full of terrible examples of mass terrorist attacks. “Immediately after the murder of Henry IV, Ravaillac’s body was torn into pieces by the people, who immediately ate his meat. When court intrigue deprived Marshal de Ancre of power and left him dead at the foot of the Louvre stairs, the day after his funeral the crowd rushed to the fresh grave, dug up the corpse, dragged it through the mud, hanged it, and then, tearing it from the gallows, dragged the remains for display. to the young King Louis XIII. Intoxicated with a feeling of revenge, he orders his heart to be fried on coals and eats it” (Cabanes O, Nass L. Revolutionary neurosis. - M, 1998, p. 270). O. Cabanes and L. Nass give examples of such crowd terrorism from the history of Italy, England, China, Russia, Kazakhstan and other countries of the world.
D.V. Olshansky names the main areas of terrorism.
The first area is political terror, aimed at influencing political leaders and government officials, forcing them to make certain decisions and take certain actions. The goal of political terror is often the elimination of undesirable political figures in order to change the political system. Main method Similar terror is the taking of hostages, whose lives are offered in exchange for concessions from the authorities.
Second sphere - information terror, manifested in a direct impact on the psyche and consciousness of people in order to form the necessary public opinion. The method of terror is the spread of rumors (“scarecrow rumors” and “aggression rumors”).
Third sphere - economic terror, which consists of various discriminatory economic actions aimed at putting pressure on economic competitors (firms, states). Methods of terror of this type can be very diverse - playing to reduce the value of a competitor’s shares or driving them to bankruptcy.
Fourth sphere - social (domestic) terrorism. This can include any acts of intimidation and harm at the everyday level (Olshansky, 2002, pp. 19-23). Formula of terror: making demands by terrorists - threat of violence - refusal of power structures to fulfill the demands of terrorists - terrorists carrying out violent actions - bringing the country's population into a state of terror - inadequate actions of law enforcement agencies - new waves of fear - new terrorist actions (Olshansky, 2002, p. 29- thirty).
Studying the identity of a terrorist is extremely difficult. Terrorists are practically inaccessible to researchers. They are ready to meet with journalists in order to promote their views, but contact with psychologists is undesirable for them. Describing the motivation for terrorist activities, D.V. Olshansky identifies seven types of motives:
1. Mercantile motives. For a certain number of people, engaging in terrorism is a way to make money.
2. Ideological motives. Such a motive arises as a result of a person’s entry into a certain community that has an ideological and political orientation.
3. Motives for transformation and active change of the world. These motives are associated with the experience of injustice in the existing structure of the world and the desire to transform it on the basis of a subjective understanding of justice.
4. The motive of power over people. Through violence, a terrorist asserts himself and his identity. By instilling fear in people, he strengthens his power.
5. The motive for the interest and attractiveness of terror as a field of activity. Terrorists may be attracted by the risk associated with terrorism, the development of plans, and the specifics of carrying out terrorist acts.
6. Friendly motives of emotional attachment in a terrorist group. Such motives can be: the motive of revenge for dead comrades, the motives of traditional participation in terrorism, because one of the relatives was involved in it.
7. Self-realization motive. This is a paradoxical motive. On the one hand, self-realization is the lot of strong-willed people. On the other hand, such self-realization is a recognition of limited capabilities, a statement of the failure of a person who does not find other ways to influence the world other than violence (Olshansky, 2002, pp. 118-119). “Terrorism,” notes A. Kara-Murza, “is actions aimed at equalizing chances... From the point of view of the terrorists themselves, their actions are a form of restoring violated justice” (according to: Drobizheva, Pain, 2003, p. 37). Terrorism represents a distorted view of justice in the world, but is always an inadequate response weak side to the actions of the strong.
The main personality traits of a terrorist are described in the literature as requirements for members of terrorist organizations. The charter of the Combat Organization of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, which was compiled by the well-known terrorist B. Savinkov at the beginning of the 20th century, contains these demands. A century later, at the end of the 20th century, the Islamic movement Hamaz makes almost similar demands. Fighters of terrorist organizations, therefore, must have the following qualities:
1. Devotion to your cause (terrorism) and your organization. B. Savinkov wrote: “A member of a military organization must be a person with boundless devotion to the cause of the organization, reaching the point of readiness to sacrifice his life at every given minute.”
2. Willingness for self-sacrifice. “A warrior of Allah,” is written in the charter of the Hamaz movement, “is ready to become a martyr and at any moment give his life for the sake of victory.”
3. Consistency, discipline, the ability to control your emotions, impulses, instincts.
4. The ability to maintain secrecy and regulate the satisfaction of one’s needs.
5. Obedience, unconditional submission to the leader. “Obedience to elders is the holy duty of a warrior of Allah.”
6. Collectivism - the ability to maintain good relationships with all members of the battle group. Modern terrorism is a group action. To ensure its effectiveness, several people must be involved in the preparation and implementation of a terrorist act (Olshansky, 2002, pp. 124-125).
It is characteristic of the terrorist’s personality that the whole world is focused on its group, its organization, and the goals of its activities. Therefore, the organization imposes strict requirements on a person’s individuality, limiting his freedom of choice. D.V. Olshansky notes that the personality of a terrorist is distinguished by psychological inferiority, a lack of something in life, the roots of which can be traced back to childhood. Such inferiority leads to the need for overcompensation primarily at the expense of other people. In the psyche of a terrorist, emotions occupy more space than rational thinking. “About the distorted logic of terrorists,” writes D.V. Olshansky, - testifies to this interesting fact. They practically cannot work in dialogue mode... It is known that everywhere almost any proposals for compromise cause terrorists to have an inadequate, distorted reaction. In the overwhelming majority of cases, they are harshly and categorically rejected on the basis of peculiar reasoning: “Their proposals are a cunning trap. They want to deal with us. They force us to continue the fight” (Olshansky, 2002, p. 138).
Terrorists are a special type of people in whom rational components in behavior and character are almost absent, and emotional components predominate to such an extent that they become affective. In this respect, the psyche of terrorists approaches the psyche of a crowd person. Low level of culture and distorted ideas about the world around us, that only violence and threats are the most in effective ways transformations of the world make the personality of a terrorist a special sociocultural phenomenon. We observed examples of such manifestations of personality among the terrorists M. Baraev, who took hostages in the cultural center on Dubrovka in Moscow.
The degree of expression of emotions varies two types of terrorists. The first type is characterized by extreme composure. “The absence of very strong emotions, emphasized composure is considered a quality that increases the effectiveness of terrorist activities and reduces the degree of risk for the terrorist,” notes D.V. Olshansky. The second type of terrorist is characterized by a deep emotional life. Increased temperament leads to hyperactivity and over-emotionality. As a rule, when carrying out a terrorist act such a person is collected and restrained, but in everyday life he is not able to restrain his emotions, impulses, affects, and aggression.
Serious moral problems are inherent only in “ideological” terrorists, with sufficient high level education and intellectual development able to reflect on their actions. The majority of terrorists are characterized by the presence of primitive syndromes that prevent the resolution of complex ethical and moral problems. D.V. Olshansky names three such syndromes:
1. "Zombie Syndrome" manifests itself in constant natural hyper-combat readiness, active hostility towards a real or virtual enemy, aspiration for difficult fighting. This is the “fighter syndrome”. Such people constantly live in conditions of war, they avoid situations of peace and quiet in every possible way, and are brilliant with weapons.
2. "Rimbaud Syndrome" is expressed in a neurotic personality structure, torn apart by a conflict between the desire for thrills and experiences of anxiety, guilt, shame, and disgust for one’s participation in them. Such people are characterized by an awareness of the voluntarily assigned “mission” of saving the world, the thought of noble altruistic responsibilities that make it possible to realize aggressive aspirations. This is the "missionary syndrome."
3. "Kamikaze suicide syndrome" characteristic of suicide bombers who destroy themselves along with their victims during a terrorist attack. To the main psychological characteristics Such people have an extreme readiness for self-sacrifice. The “kamikaze” terrorist is happy to have the opportunity to give his life and take as many enemies with him to the next world as possible. To do this, he must at least overcome the fear of his own death. Numerous evidence shows that terrorists are not afraid of death itself, but of the circumstances associated with it: injuries, helplessness, the possibility of falling into the hands of the police, torture, abuse. This is why terrorists are more willing to commit suicide than self-preservation. Since in reality they arrogate to themselves the right to control the lives of others (the lives of their victims), the right to control their own lives is automatically implied (Olshansky, 2002, pp. 145-154).
Tel Aviv University psychologist Ariel Merari believes that there are enough religious fanatics in the world, but in reality, few of them are willing to sacrifice themselves. Ten years ago, A. Merari interviewed a member of the Hamaz terrorist organization, whose friend died deliberately while committing a terrorist act. The interviewee expressed the hope that his friend would be happy in heaven. However, he himself would not want to die in this way. A. Merari notes that this person expresses the opinion of many terrorists.
Terrorist groups are paramilitary units of military organizations. The roles in the groups are distributed as follows: initiators, organizers and perpetrators of terrorist acts. In the shadows outside the group are the customers and financiers of terrorist attacks. Criminal groups are characterized by the following features:
1) division of roles performed by group members;
2) the presence of a leader;
3) commonality of purpose and joint activities;
4) stable interpersonal relationships and group cohesion;
5) the psychological unity of the group, expressed in the subjective concept of “we”.
The weak link in the organization of a criminal, including a terrorist group, notes V.P. Illarionov, - is the obligatory presence in it of an individual who is inferior to the leader in strength of character, degree of aggressiveness, distinguished by cowardice, as well as the presence of feelings of mutual distrust and suspicion, aggravated by the extremity of the situation. The leader of the group usually feels particularly suspicious of accomplices who may “betray” (Illarionov V.P. Negotiations with criminals. - M, 1993, pp. 93-94). Therefore, he must constantly monitor his accomplices. In groups where mutual suspicion is high, the frequency of conflicts is usually higher than normal. average level conflict. It is important to know the psychological characteristics of a terrorist group when carrying out their capture or negotiating the release of hostages.
The relationship between terrorists and captured hostages is a complex socio-psychological phenomenon. All Russians witnessed the dramatic events that took place from October 23 to October 26, 2002 in Moscow. A terrorist group under the command of M. Barayev captured more than 700 hostages in the theater center on Dubrovka. The group demanded a cessation of hostilities in Chechnya and negotiations with militant leaders. Using this example extreme situation Let's analyze the peculiarities of the relationship between terrorists and hostages and the psychology of people who became hostages by the will of terrorists.
The interaction between terrorists and hostages can be divided into several stages. Each stage has its own socio-psychological specifics.
The first stage is hostage-taking, characterized by lightning-fast actions by terrorists and complete surprise for the hostages. Statement by terrorists that those present in the theater were taken hostage.
The second stage is the subordination of the will of the hostages by terrorists through intimidation. The aggressive actions of terrorists, shots, the smell of gunpowder, threats are designed to instantly break the will of the hostages and take away hope for a speedy rescue. Organization of hostage security, constant monitoring of behavior.
The third stage is to prevent open panic among the hostages. The means of this could be beating or even shooting the alarmist. Internal psychological panic creeps into the soul of the hostage.
The fourth stage is the introduction of strict standards of behavior for hostages, dictating what can and cannot be done.
Fifth stage - notification outside world about hostage taking. In the theater center on Dubrovka, the terrorists allowed the hostages to talk on the phone with their relatives and friends. Then Cell phones were taken from the hostages.
The sixth stage is the sorting of hostages in order to destroy established interpersonal ties. Terrorists separated men from women, children from adults, Russians from foreigners.
The seventh stage is the terrorists organizing the life of the hostages, providing food, sleep, etc.
The eighth stage is the adaptation of hostages to an extreme situation, the onset of fatigue, dulling of feelings.
The ninth stage is the emergence of a state of depression among the hostages; emotional breakdowns are possible, both on the part of the hostages and on the part of the terrorists.
The tenth stage is the release of hostages and the destruction of terrorists.
After release, hostages experience post-traumatic syndrome. Each released hostage experiences this syndrome in its own way. An analysis of the situation in the theater center on Dubrovka shows that the person who is constantly busy with something can more easily endure a hostage situation. An important task of hostages is the constant preservation of cognitive activity, the desire for knowledge. The example of journalist Olga Chernyak is illustrative. She carefully monitored the actions of the terrorists, analyzed the situation, and remembered who came, who said what, who was dressed how. She constantly communicated with the people around her, helped them psychological assistance. As a result, after her release, Olga was one of the first to come to her senses, came out of the state of stress and was able to give an interview to journalists on television.
Psychologically, hostages can react to a stressful situation in three ways. The first type of reaction is that most hostages are morally depressed, the suffering they experience drowns out all other feelings, and cognitive orientations are minimized. The second type of reaction is that leaders may stand out among the hostages. As a rule, these are balanced, persistent, self-possessed people who help others survive and survive in this situation. We saw an example of such behavior in the difficult hostage situation at Dubrovka. Maria Shkolnikova, a cardiologist, professor, showed her leadership abilities, organized the collection of signatures among the hostages in support of the demands of terrorism, etc.................
Terror and terrorism - are these concepts related or do they have radically different foundations? Is it fair to talk about Islamist terrorism in the Middle Ages? It was these questions that worried the young people who came to the lecture “Features of the formation of radical movements in Islam: the Middle Ages and modern times,” which was given by Ayrat Tukhvatullin, Candidate of Historical Sciences, within the walls of the Russian Islamic Institute.
Before talking about the emergence of radical movements among Muslims, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of terror and terrorism. Terror- This is the intimidation of political opponents through physical violence. Terror also refers to the threat of physical harm for political or other reasons, intimidation with the threat of violence or murder. A terrorism represents the commission of violent actions (persecution, destruction, hostage-taking, murder, etc.) directed against the civilian population, and not the military, with the aim of intimidating, suppressing the will of opponents, competitors, and imposing a certain line of behavior.
If we talk about the definition of the concept of “terrorism” in the States, then there it is understood as premeditated, politically motivated violence against the civilian population, a certain object, by various groups and agents in order to influence the mood of society.
However, how right are those who justify their illegal actions with the religion of Islam, hiding behind the embodiment of a “noble idea”?! Often, supporters of radical organizations base their actions on the desire to repel the aggression of non-Muslim countries and resist the ideology of the Western world, which imposes its own laws around and corrupts the population of other states.
We must understand that radical Islam is political ideology, whose supporters still try to appeal to religious norms. It is worth noting that the term “terrorism” as such first appeared in modern times, during the years of bourgeois revolutions in Europe. If we look at the history of Islam, the first assassination attempt (namely an assassination attempt, not a terrorist act) was committed by the Kharijites, who betrayed Ali.
Talking about the emergence of the first destructive cults “based” on Islam, the lecturer paid special attention to the question of who assassins are and why today they are associated either with drug addicts or with unprincipled killers who are ready to take the life of anyone for a certain amount.
Assassins is the name by which the Ismailis and Nizaris became widely known in the Middle Ages. The use of the word hasishiya in relation to the Nizaris can be seen in written sources from the beginning of the 12th century. By this time, there was an intensification of polemics between two currents of Ismailism - the Nizaris and the Mustalites, who had established themselves in Fatimid Egypt.
In one of the works written during the reign of the Fatimid caliph al-Amir, in 1122, the Syrian Nizaris (Shiites) were first called Hashishiya. The term was again used in relation to them in the Seljuk chronicle Nusrat al-fatra. The Persian Nizari of the Alamut period were also called Hashishi in Zaydi writings. In all the mentioned sources there are no accusations of the use of hashish by the Nizari; the word hasishiya was used with pejorative meanings of "rabble, lower classes" and "unbelieving social pariahs." Therefore, it is rather stupid to identify these people with Sunnis, accusing the latter of terrorism. In general, the first radical organization among Sunni Muslim society is the Taliban ( group banned in the Russian Federation - editor's note.).
The first clashes between the Nizari and the Crusaders date back to the beginning of the 12th century. In fact, this is the only organization that resisted the onslaught of the crusaders. Since the time of the head of the Syrian Nizari, Rashid ad-Din Sinan, the term assassin, derived from hashishi, appears in the writings of Western chroniclers and travelers.
What is the basis of many adherents of radical movements? Complete rejection of other Muslims. And you can get to heaven only through violent death, following the orders of your sheikh.
So what are the reasons for such movements? Firstly, this is the emergence of opposition organizations.
Remember the situation after the end of the First World War. It was the countries of the Entente bloc that initiated the emergence of radical movements. A person like Lawrence of Arabia, the emergence of al-Qaeda ( prohibited in the Russian Federation - editor's note.) in Afghanistan (as a resistance to the Soviet “occupation”) - all these are American projects that a little later got out of control. It was then that the Wahhabi movement appeared.
Secondly, we must not forget about changes in historical boundaries between countries and regions. A clear example is the situation between Palestine and Israel, which resulted in the capture of the Israeli delegation at the Olympic Games in 1972 and their subsequent execution by Palestinian terrorists.
Another reason, named by the authors of the textbook “New Terrorism in the World and in the South of Russia,” is the emergence and further failure to resolve other existing problems. It is worth noting that Muslim organizations were often secret (this is clearly seen in the example of the Shiites).
- “The desire to save the traditional Islamic system from harmful interaction with Western values” - radicalists talked about this on every corner.
The first terrorist Islamist group appeared in 1928 in Egypt. This is the Muslim Brotherhood (banned in the Russian Federation - editor's note), at the origins of which stood Hasan al-Banna, who wanted to “correct the morals of Muslims.” It was a political party with a clearly thought-out ideology. “We must live with the problems of the entire Muslim world. Religion and power are inseparable” - these were their slogans.
In 1974, the Islamic Liberation Party was formed. (banned in the Russian Federation - editor's note), and three years later, Sheikh Muhammad al-Zahabi is killed and Christians and secular Muslims are attacked. Supporters of radical views showed with every action their dissatisfaction with excessive softness towards the population. This is a clear example mixing their own political ideas with the Islamic worldview.
A new wave of destructive cults began after the global economic crisis in 2008, when the struggle for control over resources intensified. The result is the “Arab Spring”, which originated in Tunisia and captured almost all Maghreb countries. The resistance lasted the longest in Iraq and Syria. The very complication of global economic relations has led to terrorism becoming firmly entrenched in states.
Ilmira Gafiyatullina, Kazan
Quiz on Russian history.
XVI-XVII centuries.
Brain ring:
1. Questions:
1) Priest, leader of the “Chosen Rada”. (Sylvester.)
2) Title of Ivan the Terrible. (Tsar.)
3) Cossack who led the campaign against Kuchum. (Ermak.)
4) Service people included in the Sovereign's court under Ivan the Terrible. (Nobility.)
5) A territorial unit headed by elders. (County)
6) A standing army created by Ivan IV. (Sagittarius.)
8) The general name of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates. (Volga region.)
9) A special procedure for governing part of the country’s territory, introduced by Ivan IV in 1565. (Oprichnina.)
10) The war waged by Russia under Ivan the Terrible for access to the Baltic Sea. (Livonian.)
11) Ancient family, from which Ivan GU’s mother, Elena, came out. (Glinsky.)
Violent actions for the purpose of intimidation and suppression of political opponents. (Terror).
2. Dates and events in verse.
Exercise. Determine what historical event is being discussed in these passages and in what year it occurred.
1) How the sovereign beat
Golden Horde near Kazan,
Pointed to his yard
Come to the masters...
D. Kedrin. Architects
Answer: 1552 - the Kazan Khanate became part of Russia.
2) And the benefactor ordered, -
The chronicler says:
In memory of this victory
Let them build a stone temple...
And the learned people marveled,
Zane this church
More beautiful than Italian villas
And there were Indian pagodas!
D. Kedrin. Architects
Answer: gg.- construction of St. Basil's Cathedral in honor of the victory over Kazan.
3) ...We went to Kuchumov’s land
Make amends for past mistakes.
In Siberia, far from the white light,
We fought with the courage of a lion.
There the sun looks
like through a fish bladder,
But we, sir, defeated Siberia!
D. Kedrin. Ermak
Answer: gg. - Ermak’s campaign, the annexation of the Siberian Khanate to Russia.
4) This is the Ivan-gorod fortress,
What our grandfather built for a reason!
This is where we need to build shipyards,
So that the ships are equipped,
So that the northern and southern seas
We could swim freely.
That's what Rus' needs
There is war with the Livonian Order!
Answer: gg. Livonian War.
5) And this book completely talks about how
How better house establish
(To those who have a home)
How to live so that you can grow up in a house
Wealth, fame, honor,
How to use pantries
(When there are stocks)
How to protect property
Fighting fire with fire,
And how to raise children -
Punish with a belt...
N. Konchapovskaya. Our ancient capital Answer: 16th century- Sylvester "Domostroy".
6) “What can you do when you’re in epilepsy?
Did the child stumble upon a knife?”
But still there were eyewitnesses
And in the bazaars, in their words,
The housekeepers told the women,
That Godunov missed.
And Godunov right in the back
The rumor moved like the wind through the grass,
That he killed the priest's son,
And Dmitry is hiding in Lithuania.
D. Kedrin. Horse Answer: 1591- death of Tsarevich Dmitry.
3. Catchphrases.
Exercise. Explain what this phraseological phrase means and remember what event of the 16th century it is associated with.
1) Here's to you, grandma, and St. George's Day- disappointment, surprise, grief due to failure or unforeseen circumstances.
Peasants had the right to leave their landowner a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 25), then this period was reduced to one day a year (St. George's Day). And in 1581 a decree was issued “on reserved summers”, which spoke about the prohibition for peasants to leave the landowners.
2) According to Senka and the hat - everyone deserves the honor they deserve.
By the 16th century, the nobility of a boyar could be easily determined by the height of his fur gorlat hats (“gorlatny” because the fur was taken from the throat of a killed animal). In the Boyar Duma, more noble boyars wearing higher hats sat closer to the tsar.
3) Orphan Kazan- a rogue pretending to be offended,
unhappy in order to pity someone.
The history of this expression is connected with the conquest of the Kazan Khanate. In memory of this event, the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was built on Red Square. After the fall of Kazan, the Tatar murzas (princes) had to pay tribute, but the murzas often complained about their plight, their bitter fate and received concessions from the Russian tsars. The people ironically began to call them “Kazan orphans.”
4) Filka's certificate- an empty, worthless piece of paper; a document that has no force.
Moscow Metropolitan Philip, an educated and enlightened man, opposed the tsarist policy of violence and terror. He repeatedly sent letters to Ivan the Terrible asking him to cancel the oprichnina. The Tsar, not wanting to listen to the obstinate Metropolitan, contemptuously called him Filka, and his messages Filka’s letters.
5) Inside out - in reverse order, vice versa.
In the 16th century, the embroidered collar of a boyar's dress was called a shivorot.
clothes. During the time of Ivan the Terrible, a boyar who was subjected to the tsar’s wrath was, as punishment, seated on a skinny nag backwards, with his clothes also put on backwards. In this form, the offender was driven around the city to the ridicule of the street crowd.
4. Outstanding personalities.
1) Prince, governor, boyar since 1556. Already in his young years he became famous as a talented commander. He took part in the capture of Kazan, was a member of the “Chosen Rada”, and at the age of 28 became a boyar. During the Livonian War, fearing the tsar's wrath, he fled to Lithuania and fought on the side of the Polish-Lithuanian army. Author of many works, including three messages to Ivan the Terrible, in which
he accused the king of many crimes. (Kurbsky AndreyMikhailovich.)
2) He was the archbishop of Novgorod and Pskov. Contributed; the spread of Christianity among the population of the North. According to him! According to the instructions, new monasteries were built and many were restored; these icons, chronicles were compiled. Since 1542 he has been Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia. Compiled the “Rite of the Crowning of the Kingdom”, according to which the crowning ceremony of Ivan the Terrible took place in January 1547. (Makariy, in the world- Michael.)
3) Last wife Ivan the Terrible, mother of Tsarevich Dmitry: Ivanovich. Before the death of her son, she lived with him in Uglich, where she was exiled by Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. After the death of her son, she was tonsured a nun under the name of Martha. (Maria Nagaya.)
4) Close associate of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, one of the leaders of the oprichnina, Duma nobleman. From 1561 he became the tsar's closest assistant in eradicating boyar sedition. After the establishment of the oprichnina, he took one of the first places in the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda. He showed special zeal in tracking down the unwanted and dissatisfied, in torture and execution. The king trusted him with the most difficult and dirty assignments. He died in the Livonian War as a hero during the storming of the Paide fortress. (Malyuta Skuratov.)
5) Coming from a very noble family. Together with his brother, he helped strengthen his position at the court of Elena Glinskaya. After the death of the latter, he headed the boyar government that ruled the country on behalf of the young Ivan IV. Contributed to the nomination of Novgorod Archbishop Macarius. (Shuisky Ivan Vasilievich, his brother - Vasily Vasilievich.)
5. “Mask, I know you” (guess the name of a figure of the 16th-7th centuries).
1) Patriarch.
From the family of a noble boyar. He became one of the king's close advisers. He fell into disgrace and was tonsured a monk. Metropolitan of Rostov and Yaroslavl. In the Tushino camp he was proclaimed Russian patriarch. He was taken prisoner by the Polish. After captivity, he was elected Patriarch of Rus'. For some time he was the de facto ruler of the country. For him the title of Moscow Patriarch was combined with the title of great! sovereign, therefore all royal letters were written on behalf of the king and; patriarch, the ambassadors introduced themselves to both rulers, and during divine services the names of both “great sovereigns” were always mentioned. Had five sons. But only one survived and became famous throughout Russia. (Fedor Romanov-Filaret.)
2) Patriarch.
The son of a Mordovian peasant. Metropolitan, Patriarch. Chief Guardian royal family: twice saved from death during epidemics. He personally treated patients. One of the main reformers of the church. With his own hands he gouged out the eyes of images of saints on icons in non-Greek writing. He beat the priests right in the church. He ordered the zealous, violent and opponents of reform to be tortured, beaten and flogged! Demanded to select and exterminate the people's musical instruments. He openly came out with the idea of the superiority of spiritual power over secular power. (Nikoi.)
3) People's hero.
The words belong to him: “We will not spare anything, we will sell our houses, we will mortgage our wives and children, and we will collect the treasury for the military pay of the people.” After the victory over the enemy, he was granted the rank of Duma nobleman. They didn’t give me an estate, but they gave me a salary - 200 rubles a year. Monuments were erected in Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod! (Kuzma Minin.)
4) Voivode.
The surname comes from the name of the town of Pogorelovo. His family suffered from Ivan the Terrible. Grandfather Fyodor was exiled, his mother was the “supreme noblewoman” under the daughter of Boris Godunov. The governor himself was faithful to Godunov to the end. He fought with Bolotnikov. Member of the First Militia of 1611 and the Second Militia of 1612 and the provisional government. There is a monument in Moscow. (Dmitry Pozharsky.)
5) Priest.
At 21 he becomes a deacon, at 23 he becomes a priest. For being demanding of his flock, he was publicly beaten and expelled from the village. Boyar Sheremetev tried to drown him in the Volga. Beat with a whip. He fled to Moscow. The tsar ordered him to be imprisoned in the basement of the monastery, and then exiled to Siberia. Returned to Moscow. The Tsar settled him in the Kremlin, without fail bowed to him and asked for his blessing. He offered the position of confessor to the Tsarev but refused. Bright personality in the fight against the enemies of religion. Wrote over 80 works. Stripped of his hair and anathematized. He spent 14 years in an earthen pit. Burnt alive in a log house. (Habakkuk.)
6. It is necessary to recall and explain as many historical concepts as possible in alphabetical order. Rule: groups compile a dictionary of historical terms in strictly alphabetical order for each letter of the alphabet.
Absolutism - state power in which the monarch has unlimited power.
Archbishop - senior bishop, one of the highest clergy titles.
Bishops- the general name of the highest Orthodox clergy (bishop, archbishop, metropolitan, patriarch).
Architecture - urban planning.
Ataman- the highest commander, leader in the Cossack troops.
Corvee - peasant duty, which includes work on the landowner's estate.
Bobyl - representative of a poor, sometimes homeless, dependent population.
Boyars - upper class of society, large landowners.
Boyar Duma- the highest council under the prince, which dealt with! solving political issues.
Riot - spontaneous uprising, rebellion.
All-Russian market - strengthening economic ties and exchange of goods between different parts of the country.
War - armed struggle within a state or between! countries and peoples.
Parish- an administrative-territorial unit that occupied an intermediate position between the camp and the district.
Uprising ~ mass armed uprising against the authorities.
Patrimony - family land holdings.
Hetman- elected head of the Cossacks.
Golytba- the poorest Cossacks, urban and rural poor.
City - large locality, center of industry, trade, culture.
Lip- a territorial district coinciding with a volost or county.
Nobles~ service people.
Dynasty- reigning monarchs from the same family. Clergy- the upper class involved in religious rites and services.
Bishop - highest clergyman.
"Saved Summers"- a ban on the transfer of peasants from one owner to another.
Zemsky Sobor - meeting of representatives of all Russian lands.
"The Chosen Rada" - Council of confidants under Ivan IV.
Icon - a pictorial representation of God, a saint or saints.
Cossacks- free people who carried military service in the border regions of Russia.
Peasantry - farmers, rural producers.
Serfdom- a form of feudal dependence of peasants: their attachment to the land, subordination to the power of the feudal lord.
Merchants- traders.
Manufactory- an enterprise based on the division of labor and handcraft techniques.
Localism- special order appointments to service taking into account the nobility of origin, birth, service and personal merits of ancestors.
Metropolitan- the highest spiritual honorary title.
Monastery- territory, temple and all premises of the community of monks (or nuns).
Sailors - discoverers who explored the coast of the seas.
quitrent - peasant duty, the annual collection of food or money from serfs.
Militia - a military formation formed on a voluntary basis.
Patriarch- highest ordination, the head of an independent church, elected by the church council.
Pioneers- explorers who paved new paths and discovered new lands.
Submit- tax on dependent population.
Estate- conditional land tenure, in which land was given as a reward for service.
Posad - commercial and industrial part of the city. Duty - a monetary fee levied by the state from the population for a certain type of service (trade). Orders- central governing bodies. Protopop - everyday name for a senior Orthodox priest (archpriest).
Craft- small-scale manual production of industrial products.
Reform- transformation, change, reorganization. Autocracy - monarchical form of government in Russia, based on the strong, almost unlimited power of the tsar.
Imposture- a phenomenon during the Time of Troubles caused by | the emergence of false rulers.
"Seven Boyars" - government of the Russian state, co-)1
consisting of 7 boyars, during the period of the Polish-Swedish intervention.
Priest - church worker.
Troubles- a period in Russian history at the beginning of the 17th century, caused by the suppression of the Moscow dynasty and the Polish-Lithuanian intervention.
Estates- social groups having rights and obligations enshrined by custom or law and inheritable.
Old Believers- religious groups and churches that did not recognize the church reform of the 17th century.
Sagittarius- standing army, who fought on foot and armed not only with bladed weapons, but also with firearms (squeakers).
Code of Law - code of laws in the XV-XVI centuries.
Customs - an institution responsible for controlling the movement of goods across the border.
County- territorial unit.
"Lessons of the summer"- time limit for finding runaway peasants.
Feudal - landowner.
Tsar- the official title of the ruler in Russia.
Church - an organization that unites supporters of a particular faith, followers of a particular religion.
Economy- economy of the country.
St. George's day- religious holiday in honor of George (Yuri) the Victorious, during which peasants were allowed to move from one landowner to another.
Fair - large all-Russian retail outlets.
7. Questions
1) An architectural structure in the center of Moscow and other cities, in Moscow in the 17th century, underwent reconstruction. (Kremlin)
2) A printed textbook that could be bought for 1 kopeck in the 17th century. (Primer)
3) Works of oral folk art. (epics)
4) The name of the prophet, in whose honor one of the most beautiful churches in Yaroslavl was built. (Ilya)
5) A new phenomenon of national culture, the prototype of which was the performances of buffoons. (theater)
6) The name of the church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich, which was popularly called “Divna”. (Uspenskaya)
7) A work by the painter S. Ushakov. (Trinity)
8) A dish made from boiled or steamed cereals. (porridge)
