The philosophical teachings of Confucius briefly. The principles and essence of Confucianism, the main provisions of this religion

Name: Confucianism (teachings of Confucius)
Founder: Confucius
Time of occurrence: VI in BC

Confucianism is a religious and philosophical system that formed in China in the 6th century BC, the founder of which was Confucius (Kun Tzu).

The influence of Confucianism on Chinese civilization is difficult to overestimate - for more than two millennia this philosophical, religious and ethical teaching regulated all aspects of the life of the Chinese, starting from family relations and ending with the state administrative structure. Unlike most other world religious doctrines, Confucianism is characterized not by mysticism and metaphysical abstractions, but by strict rationalism, placing above all the public benefit and the priority of general interests over private ones. There is no clergy here, as for example in Christianity; its place was taken by officials performing administrative functions, which included religious functions.

Junzi is the image of a perfect person, created by Confucius in contrast to the mores that reigned during his life. The main virtues of Junzi were humanity and a sense of duty.
Humanity consisted of a whole complex of qualities, including modesty, justice, restraint, dignity, selflessness, love
to people, etc. A sense of duty is the need to act in accordance with higher principles, and not to pursue personal gain: “A noble man thinks about duty, short person cares about profit." No less important concepts were loyalty and sincerity, observance of ceremonies and rituals. It was the ritual side that became one of the most noticeable manifestations of Confucianism; just remember the saying “Chinese ceremonies.”

The social order, which, according to Confucius, corresponded to the ideal, can be characterized by the quote “Let the father be the father, the son the son, the sovereign the sovereign, the official the official,” i.e. everyone should be in their place and strive to fulfill their duties as correctly as possible
responsibilities. Society according to Confucius should consist of upper and lower classes. The top must engage in governance, the goal of which is the well-being of the people.

Of great importance was the concept of “xiao” - filial piety, which in a broader sense was interpreted as the subordination of the younger to the elder. An example of the practical application of “xiao” - in medieval China, according to the law, a son could not testify against his father, and according to the ethical standards of Confucianism, a virtuous son, if a parent committed a crime, could only exhort him to return to the path of truth. There are many positive examples of “xiao” in Confucian treatises, such as a poor man who sold his son to feed his starving mother, etc.

The spread of Confucianism resulted in the rise of the cult of family and clan. The priority of the interests of the family over the interests of the individual was unshakable. All issues were resolved based on the benefit for the family, and everything personal and emotional was removed into the background and not taken into account.

The religious side of Confucianism is associated with the cult of ancestor worship. Each family had a family temple of their ancestors with burial and temple lands, the alienation of which was unacceptable.

One of the main reasons that led to the spread of Confucianism in China was that Confucians not only concentrated the management of the state and society, but also paid great attention to upbringing and education. This led to Confucianism becoming widespread, every Chinese youth lived in a Confucian atmosphere, acted only in accordance with accepted rites and rituals. Even if the Chinese subsequently became, or, in the depths of his nature, even sometimes without realizing it, he thought and behaved like a Confucian.

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Confucianism is a worldview, social ethics, political ideology, scientific tradition, way of life, sometimes considered as philosophy, sometimes as religion.

In China, this teaching is known as 儒 or 儒家 (that is, “school of scholars,” “school of learned scribes,” or “school of learned people”); "Confucianism" is a Western term that has no equivalent in Chinese.

Confucianism arose as an ethical, socio-political doctrine in the Chunqiu Period (722 BC to 481 BC) - a time of deep social and political upheaval in China. During the Han Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology, and Confucian norms and values ​​became generally accepted.

In imperial China, Confucianism played the role of the main religion, the principle of organization of the state and society for over two thousand years in an almost unchanged form, until the beginning of the 20th century, when the teaching was replaced by the “three principles of the people” of the Republic of China.

Already after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China, during the era of Mao Zedong, Confucianism was condemned as a teaching that stood in the way of progress. Researchers note that despite official persecution, Confucianism was actually present in the theoretical positions and in the practice of decision-making throughout both the Maoist era and the transition period and the time of reforms carried out under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping; Leading Confucian philosophers remained in the PRC and were forced to “repent of their errors” and officially recognize themselves as Marxists, although in fact they wrote about the same things they did before the revolution. Only in the late 1970s did the cult of Confucius begin to revive and Confucianism is currently playing important role in the spiritual life of China.

The central problems that Confucianism considers are questions about the ordering of relations between rulers and subjects, the moral qualities that a ruler and a subordinate should have, etc.

Formally, Confucianism never had the institution of a church, but in terms of its significance, the degree of penetration into the soul and education of the consciousness of the people, and its influence on the formation of behavioral stereotypes, it successfully fulfilled the role of religion.

Basic terminology

The Chinese designation for Confucianism makes no reference to the identity of its founder: it is a whale. ex. 儒, pinyin: rú or whale ex. 儒家, pinyin: rújiā, that is, “School of educated people.” Thus, tradition has never traced this ideological system to the theoretical heritage of a single thinker. Confucianism is actually a set of teachings and doctrines that initially became the development of ancient mythologies and ideologies. Ancient Confucianism became the embodiment and completion of the entire spiritual experience of the previous national civilization. The term whale is used in this sense. ex. 儒教, pinyin: rújiào.

Historical evolution

Template:Confucianism

The history of Confucianism is inseparable from the history of China. For thousands of years, this teaching was system-forming for the Chinese system of government and society, and in its later modification, known as “Neo-Confucianism”, finally formed what is commonly called traditional culture China. Before contact with Western powers and Western civilization, China was a country dominated by Confucian ideology.

Nevertheless, the identification of Confucianism as an independent ideological system and corresponding school is associated with the activities of a specific person, who outside China is known under the name Confucius. This name arose at the end of the 16th century in the writings of European missionaries, who thus in Latin (lat. Confucius) conveyed the combination Kong Fu-tzu (Chinese example: 孔夫子, pinyin: Kǒngfūzǐ), although the name 孔子 (Kǒngzǐ) is more often used with the same meaning “Teacher [of the family/surname] Kun”. His real name is Qiu 丘 (Qiū), literally “Hill”, his middle name is Zhong-ni (仲尼Zhòngní), that is, “Second of Clay”. In ancient sources, this name is given as an indication of the place of his birth: in a cave in the depths of a clay sacred hill, where his parents made a pilgrimage. This happened in 551 BC. e. near modern city Qufu (Chinese: 曲阜, pinyin: Qūfù) in Shandong province.

After the death of Confucius, his numerous students and followers formed many directions, in the 3rd century. BC e. there were probably about ten of them. Two thinkers are considered his spiritual heirs: Mencius (孟子) and Xunzi 荀子, authors of the treatises Mencius and Xunzi. Confucianism, which had become an authoritative political and ideological force, had to withstand fierce competition with other authoritative political and philosophical schools of Ancient China: Moism (Chinese translation: 墨家, pinyin: mòjiā) and legalism (Chinese translation: 法家, pinyin: fǎjiā). The teachings of the latter became the official ideology of the first Chinese Qin Empire (221-209 BC). Unifying Emperor Qin Shi Huang (reigned 246-210 BC) in 213 BC. e. launched brutal repressions against the Confucians. A significant part of Confucian scholars was removed from political and intellectual activities, and 460 oppositionists were buried alive, and the texts of Confucian books were destroyed. Those that have survived to this day were restored by oral transmission already in the 2nd century. BC e. This period in the development of Confucianism is called early Confucianism.

Having withstood fierce competition, Confucianism under the new dynasty - Han (206 BC - 220 AD) in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. became the official ideology of the empire. During this period, qualitative changes occurred in the development of Confucianism: the teaching was divided into orthodox (古文經學 “School of the Canon of Ancient Signs”) and heterodox (今文經學 “School of the Canon of Modern Signs”). Representatives of the first asserted the inviolability of the authority of Confucius and his disciples, the absolute significance of their ideas and the immutability of their covenants, and denied any attempts to revise the Teacher's legacy. Representatives of the second direction, led by the “Confucius of the Han era” - Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BC), insisted on a creative approach to ancient teachings. Dong Zhongshu managed, using the teachings of competing intellectual schools, to create a holistic doctrine covering all manifestations of nature and society, and with its help to substantiate the theory of social and state structure, which was laid down by Confucius and Mencius. The teachings of Dong Zhongshu in Western Sinology are called classical Confucianism. The teachings of Confucius in his interpretation turned into a comprehensive worldview system, and therefore became the official ideology of the centralized state.

During the Han period, Confucianism determined the entire modern political and cultural situation in China. In 125 BC. e. was established State Academy(太學 or 國學), which combined the functions of the central humanitarian theoretical center and educational institution. This is how the famous keju examination system appeared, based on the results of which the degree of “court scholar” (博士 bóshì) was then awarded. However, the theory of the state then relied much more on Taoist and legalist ideas.

Confucianism finally became the official ideology of the empire much later, under Emperor Ming Di (明帝 Míngdì, reigned 58 - 78). This entailed the formation of the Confucian canon: the unification of ancient texts, the compilation of a list of canonical books that were used in the examination system, and the creation of the cult of Confucius with the design of appropriate ceremonies. The first temple of Confucius was erected in the 6th century, and the most revered one was built in 1017 at the birthplace of the Teacher. It includes a replica of the Kuhn family home, the famous hill and the iconic ensemble. The canonical image of Confucius - a thick-bearded old man - developed even later.

During the period of strengthening of imperial statehood, during the Tang dynasty (唐, 618-907), significant changes took place in China in the field of culture; a new religion, the Buddhist religion (佛教 fójiào), became increasingly influential in the state, becoming an important factor in the political and economic life. This also required a significant modification of Confucian teachings. The initiator of the process was the outstanding political figure and the scholar Han Yu (韓愈 Hán Yù, 768-824). The activities of Han Yu and his students led to another renewal and transformation of Confucianism, which in European literature was called Neo-Confucianism. Historian of Chinese thought Mou Zongsan (English) Russian believed that the difference between Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism is the same as between Judaism and Christianity.

In the 19th century Chinese civilization had to endure a significant scale spiritual crisis, the consequences of which have not been overcome to this day. This was due to the colonial and cultural expansion of Western powers. Its result was the collapse of imperial society, and the painful search by the Chinese people for a new place in the world. The Confucians, who did not want to compromise traditional values, had to find ways to synthesize traditional Chinese thought with the achievements of European philosophy and culture. As a result, according to the Chinese researcher Wang Bangxiong (王邦雄), after wars and revolutions, turn of XIX-XX centuries The following directions in the development of Chinese thought have emerged:

  1. Conservative, based on the Confucian tradition, and oriented towards Japan. Representatives: Kang Yuwei, Liang Qichao, Yan Fu (嚴復, 1854-1921), Liu Shipei (刘师培, 1884-1919).
  2. Liberal-Western, denying Confucian values, oriented towards the United States. Representatives are Hu Shi (胡適, 1891-1962) and Wu Zhihui (吴志辉, 1865-1953).
  3. Radical Marxist, Russificationist, also denying Confucian values. Representatives are Chen Duxiu (陳獨秀, 1879-1942) and Li Dazhao (李大钊, 1889-1927).
  4. Socio-political idealism, or sunyat-senism (三民主義 or 孫文主義). Representatives: Sun Yat-sen (孫中山, 1866-1925), Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石, 1886-1975), Chen Lifu (陳立夫, 1899-2001).
  5. Socio-cultural idealism, or modern neo-Confucianism (当代新儒教 dāngdài xīn rújiào).

Representatives of the first generation of modern Neo-Confucianism include the following thinkers: Zhang Junmai (张君劢, Eng. Carsun Chang, 1886-1969), Xiong Shili (熊十力, 1885-1968) and the above-mentioned Liang Shuming. The last two thinkers remained in the PRC after 1949 and disappeared for many years from their Western colleagues. Philosophically, they tried to comprehend and modernize the spiritual heritage of China with the help of Indian Buddhism, laying the foundations of comparative cultural studies in China. The second generation of modern Neo-Confucians grew up in Taiwan and Hong Kong after World War II, all of them disciples of Hsiung Shi-li. Representatives: Tang Junyi (唐君毅, 1909-1978), Mou Zongsan (牟宗三, 1909-1995), Xu Fuguan (徐複觀, 1903-1982). The peculiarity of the method of these thinkers was that they tried to establish a dialogue between traditional Chinese and modern Western culture and philosophy. The result of their activities was published in 1958, “A Manifesto for a Re-Appraisal of Sinology and Reconstruction of Chinese Culture”.

The most recent Confucian movement was formed in the 1970s in the United States, as part of the joint work of American sinologists and researchers who came from China and studied in the West. This movement, which calls for the renewal of Confucianism using Western thought, is called “Post-Confucianism” (後儒家hòu rújiā). Its brightest representative is Du Weiming (杜維明, b. 1940), who works simultaneously in China, the USA and Taiwan. Its influence on US intellectual circles is so significant that the American researcher Robert Neville (b. 1939) even coined the half-joking term “Boston Confucianism.” This indicates that in China in the twentieth century. the most powerful spiritual shift in its entire history occurred, caused by cultural shock from too sharp contact with fundamentally alien models of culture and way of life, and attempts to comprehend it, even those oriented towards the Chinese cultural heritage, go beyond the scope of Confucianism itself.

Thus, over more than 2,500 years of existence, Confucianism has changed greatly, while remaining an internally integral complex that uses the same basic set of values.

Composition of the Confucian canon

The Confucian tradition is represented by a wide range of primary sources, which make it possible to reconstruct the teaching itself, as well as to identify the ways in which the tradition functions in various forms life of Chinese civilization.

The Confucian canon developed gradually and is divided into two sets of texts: “Pentateuch” and “Four Books”. The second set finally became canonical within the framework of Neo-Confucianism in the 12th century. Sometimes these texts are considered together (《四書五經》Sìshū Wŭjīng). From the end of the 12th century, the Thirteen Books (《十三經》shísānjīng) began to be published.

The term “Five Canons” (“Pentatecanon”) appeared during the reign of the Han Emperor Wu Di (漢武帝, 140 - 87 BC). By that time, most of the authentic texts had been lost, and the texts reconstructed from oral transmission were written in the “statutory letter” (隸書lìshū), introduced by Qin Shi Huang. The commentary 左氏傳 (zuǒ shì zhuán) to the chronicle 春秋 (Chūnqiū) acquired particular significance for the Dong Zhong-shu school, which considers these texts canonical. It was believed that its text contains many allegories, and the commentary emphasizes “ great meaning” (大義dàyì) and helps to identify “secret speeches” (微言 wēiyán) from the point of view of Confucian moral and political doctrine. The Dong Zhong-shu school also widely used apocrypha (緯書wěishū) for fortune telling based on the texts of the canons. In the 1st century BC e. The situation changed dramatically, for the rival school of the Canon of Ancient Signs (古文經學gǔwén jīngxué) claimed that the texts written in ancient signs, which were allegedly discovered during the restoration of the house of Confucius walled up in the wall (壁經bìjīng, “Canons from the Wall”), were authentic. Kung An-guo (孔安國), a descendant of Confucius, insisted on the canonization of these texts, but was refused. In 8 AD, the usurper Wang Mang (王莽, 8 - 23 AD) ascended to the throne of the empire, proclaiming the New Dynasty (literally: 新). In order to legitimize his own power, he began to award the title of erudite (博士) to experts in the “canons of ancient signs.” This school operated with the concept of 六經 (liùjīng), that is, “Six Canons”, which included the texts of the “Five Canons” plus the “Canon of Music” (《樂經》yuè jīng), which was lost in antiquity. The texts written in old and new signs differed sharply from each other not only in textual terms (different division into chapters, composition, content), but also from the point of view of ideology. The school of the canons of ancient signs listed its founder not as Confucius, but as the founder of the Zhou dynasty, Zhou-gong (周公). It was believed that Confucius was a historian and teacher who faithfully passed on the ancient tradition without adding anything of his own. Once again, the rivalry between the schools of old and new signs will flare up in the 18th century. on a completely different ideological basis.

Basic concepts of Confucianism and its problems

Basic Concepts

If we turn to the Confucian canon itself, it turns out that we can distinguish 22 main categories (only the most common meanings and interpretations in Russian literature are indicated as translation options)

  1. 仁 (rén) - philanthropy, humanity, worthy, humane person, kernel of the fruit, core.
  2. 義 (yì) - duty/justice, due justice, sense of duty, meaning, meaning, essence, friendly relations.
  3. 禮 (lǐ) - ceremony, worship, etiquette, decency, culture as the basis of the Confucian worldview, offering, gift.
  4. 道 (dào) - Tao-way, Path, truth, way, method, rule, custom, morality, morality.
  5. 德 (dé) - De, good power, mana (according to E. A. Torchinov), moral justice, humanity, honesty, strength of soul, dignity, mercy, beneficence.
  6. 智 (zhì) - wisdom, intelligence, knowledge, stratagem, sophistication, understanding.
  7. 信 (xìn) - sincerity, faith, trust, faithful, genuine, valid.
  8. 材 (cái) - ability, talent, talented person, human nature, material, workpiece, wood, character, nature, coffin.
  9. 孝 (xiào) - xiao principle, honoring parents, diligent service to parents, diligent fulfillment of the will of ancestors, diligent fulfillment of filial (daughter) duty, mourning, mourning clothing.
  10. 悌 (tì) - respect for older brothers, respectful attitude for elders, respect, love of a younger brother for an older one.
  11. 勇 (yǒng) - courage, bravery, courage, soldier, warrior, militia.
  12. 忠 (zhōng) - loyalty, devotion, sincerity, sincerity, to be attentive, to be prudent, to serve faithfully.
  13. 順 (shùn) - obedient, submissive, well-intentioned, follow..., obey, get along, to your liking, to your liking, prosperous, in a row, suitable, pleasant, to order, imitate, copy, sacrifice (to someone).
  14. 和 (hé) - He, harmony, peace, agreement, peaceful, calm, serene, appropriate, suitable, moderate, harmonize with others, echo, sing along, pacify, total, sum. According to L. S. Perelomov: “unity through diversity.”
  15. 五常 (wǔcháng) - Five constants (仁, 義, 禮, 智, 信). The following can be used as a synonym: 五倫 (wǔlún) - norms of human relationships (between the sovereign and the minister, father and son, elder and younger brothers, husband and wife, between friends). Can also be used instead of 五行 (wǔxíng) - Five virtues, Five elements (in cosmogony: earth, wood, metal, fire, water).
  16. 三綱 (sāngāng) - Three foundations (the absolute power of the sovereign over the subject, the father over the son, the husband over the wife). Dong Zhong-shu, as we will see later, introduced the concept of 三綱五常 (sāngāngwŭcháng) - “Three foundations and five unshakable rules” (submission of the subject to the sovereign, subordination of the son to the father and wife to the husband, humanity, justice, politeness, rationality and fidelity).
  17. 君子 (jūnzǐ) - Junzi, a noble man, a perfect man, a man of the highest moral qualities, a wise and absolutely virtuous man who makes no mistakes. In ancient times: “sons of rulers”, in the Ming era - a respectful designation for eight figures of the Donglin school (東林黨)2.
  18. 小人 (xiǎorén) - Xiao-ren, low person, vile people, small man, antipode of Jun Tzu, simple people, cowardly, ignoble person. Later it began to be used as a derogatory synonym for the pronoun "I" when addressing elders (authorities or parents).
  19. 中庸 (zhōngyōng) - golden mean, “Average and Unchangeable” (as the title of the corresponding canon), mediocre, average, mediocre.
  20. 大同 (dàtóng) - Da tong, Great Unity, coherence, complete harmony, complete identity, society of the times of Yao (堯) and Shun (舜).
  21. 小康 (xiăokāng) - Xiao kang, small (average) wealth, a state of society in which the original Tao has been lost, a moderately prosperous society.
  22. 正名 (zhèngmíng) - “Correction of names”, bringing names into line with the essence of things and phenomena.

Issues

The original name of the Confucian teachings does not indicate the name of its creator, which corresponds to the original setting of Confucius - “to transmit, and not to create oneself.” The ethical and philosophical teaching of Confucius was qualitatively innovative, but he identified it with the wisdom of the ancient “sage saints”, expressed in historical, didactic and artistic works (Shu-ching and Shi-ching). Confucius put forward the ideal of a government system in which, in the presence of a sacred ruler, real power belongs to “scholars” (zhu), who combine the properties of philosophers, writers and officials. The state was identified with society, social ties - with interpersonal ones, the basis of which was seen in the family structure. The family was derived from the relationship between father and son. From Confucius's point of view, the function of the father was similar to the function of Heaven. Therefore, filial piety was elevated to the rank of the basis of virtue-de.

Assessments of Confucianism as a teaching

Is Confucianism a religion? This question was also raised by the first European sinologists of the 16th century, who were monks of the Jesuit Order, specially created to combat heresies and convert all peoples to Christianity globe. For the sake of successful conversion, the missionaries tried to interpret the dominant ideology, that is, neo-Confucianism, as a religion, and in Christian categories, which were the only ones familiar to them. Let's illustrate this with a specific example.

The first great missionary sinologist of the 16th-17th centuries. was Matteo Ricci (Chinese: 利瑪竇Lì Mǎdòu, 1552-1610). In modern terms, Ricci is the creator of the religious-cultural theory that became the basis of missionary activity in China - a theistic interpretation of the heritage of the ancient Chinese (pre-Confucian) tradition before its complete reconciliation with Catholicism. The main methodological basis of this theory was an attempt to create an interpretation of the pre-Confucian and early Confucian traditions compatible with Christianity.

Ricci, like his successors, proceeded from the fact that in ancient times the Chinese professed monotheism, but with the decline of this idea they did not create a coherent polytheistic system, like the peoples of the Middle East and ancient Europe. Therefore, he assessed Confucianism as a “sect of scholars”, which is naturally chosen by the Chinese who study philosophy. According to Ricci, Confucians do not worship idols, they believe in one deity who preserves and controls all things on earth. However, all Confucian doctrines are half-hearted, because they do not contain the doctrine of the Creator and, accordingly, the creation of the universe. The Confucian idea of ​​retribution applied only to descendants and does not contain concepts about the immortality of the soul, heaven and hell. At the same time, M. Ricci denied the religious meaning of Confucian cults. The teaching of the “sect of the scribes” is aimed at achieving public peace, order in the state, family well-being and raising a virtuous person. All these values ​​correspond to “the light of conscience and Christian truth.”

M. Ricci’s attitude towards neo-Confucianism was completely different. The main source for the study of this phenomenon is the catechism of Tianzhu shi yi (《天主实录》, "The True Meaning of the Heavenly Lord", 1603). Despite his sympathy for original Confucianism (whose doctrines of being-existence (有yǒu) and sincerity "may contain a grain of truth"), Neo-Confucianism became the object of his fierce criticism. Special attention Ricci devoted his time to refuting cosmological ideas about the Great Ultimate (Tai chi 太極). Naturally, he suspected that the Great Limit that gives birth to the universe is a pagan concept that blocks the educated Confucian’s path to the Living and True God. It is characteristic that in his criticism of Neo-Confucianism he was forced to liberally resort to European philosophical terminology, hardly understandable even to the most educated Chinese of that time... Ricci’s main missionary task was to prove that the Great Limit could not precede God and give rise to Him. He equally rejected the idea of ​​unifying man and the universe through the concept of qi (氣, pneuma-substrate, aura vitalis of missionary translations).

The polemic against Confucian ideas about human nature was extremely important. M. Ricci did not dispute the fundamental premise of the Confucian tradition, agreeing that the original nature of man is good - this thesis did not conflict with the doctrine of original sin.

As we can see, the study of traditional Chinese philosophical teachings was necessary for the missionary for practical needs, but at the same time Ricci had to reason from the positions of his opponents. M. Ricci, first of all, needed to explain to the educated Chinese why they had not heard anything about God, and this could only be done from the Confucian position of “returning to antiquity” (復古fu gu). He tried to prove that the true Confucian tradition was the religion of God (上帝Shang Di), and neo-Confucianism had lost all connection with it. Devoid of monotheistic (and even theistic, as it turns out later) content, the neo-Confucian tradition was interpreted by Ricci only as a distortion of genuine Confucianism. (It is noteworthy that Ricci’s contemporary Chinese thinkers Gu Yan-wu and Wang Chuan-shan also held a similar point of view, but the direction of criticism was fundamentally different). Neo-Confucianism for Ricci was also unacceptable because it considered the universe to be one, thus not separating the Creator from creatures, placing both in the category of created being - originating from the impersonal Tai Chi.

The listed points determined for centuries the attitude of European Sinologists to the problems of philosophical Neo-Confucianism in China. It is no less remarkable that modern Chinese thinkers, having turned to the study of this problem, began reasoning at approximately the same theoretical level as European thinkers of the 18th century. In particular, Ren Chi-yu (任继愈, b. 1916) argued that it was Neo-Confucianism that became the Confucian religion, but it differs from the European one: Europe is characterized by the distinction between religion, philosophy and science, and in China they were integrated under the dominance of religion.

The same missionaries and European Enlighteners, operating with their factual and theoretical material, posed the problem in exactly the opposite way: Confucianism is atheism. Already Pierre Poivre (1719-1786) argued that Confucianism shows the optimal model for governing an atheistic society. Many subsequent researchers, for example, N.I. Sommer (whose entire work is given in the appendix), also pointed out that from the point of view of European science and philosophy, the teachings of the Confucians are purely atheistic or, at least, pantheistic. The same point of view was shared by the modern Chinese researcher Yang Hsiang-kui (杨向奎, 1910-2000).

Feng Yu-lan sharply opposed the interpretation of Confucianism as a religion. He emphasized that the character 教 (jiāo) - “teaching” in the ancient designation of Confucianism should not be understood in the same meaning as in the modern word 宗教 (zōngjiào) - “religion”. Feng Yu-lan, who was educated and worked for a long time in the United States, argued that what is specific to religion is not simply the recognition of the existence spiritual world, but recognition of its existence in specific forms, which is alien to Confucianism. Confucians did not attribute any supernatural properties to Confucius, he did not perform miracles, did not preach faith in a kingdom other than this world, or paradise, did not call for the veneration of any deity, and did not have divinely inspired books. Buddhism was the carrier of religious ideas in China.

An extreme view of Confucianism as atheism was demonstrated by the very original Chinese thinker Zhu Qian-chih (朱謙之, 1899-1972). However, his position is such that A.I. Kobzev called it “extravagant.” Since the 1930s, this thinker has developed a theory of the stimulating impact of Chinese civilization on Western Europe. He came to the following conclusions: a) the European Renaissance was generated by “four great inventions” - paper, printing, compass and gunpowder, which appeared in the West through the mediation of the Mongols and Arabs; b) the connection between European and Chinese civilizations was carried out in three stages: 1) “material contact”; 2) “contact in the field of art”; 3) “direct contact”.

"Direct contact" was associated with the activities of Jesuit missionaries in China and the study of Neo-Confucianism. For the Age of Enlightenment, Confucius was one of the ideological reference points, and Confucianism was the source of the progress of philosophy. It was the Jesuits who brought the idea of ​​Confucian atheism to Europe.

The influence of Chinese philosophy on Germany was manifested in the creation new reality- educational monarchical liberalism. The influence of Chinese philosophy on France led to the creation of an artificial ideal - an ideology of revolution aimed at destruction. Chinese philosophy itself shaped the views of F. M. Voltaire, P. A. Holbach, S. L. Montesquieu, D. Diderot and others. G. Hegel’s dialectic is of Chinese origin. The dialectics of the “Phenomenology of Spirit” finds correspondence with the Confucian canon.

The question of the religious content of Confucian teachings thus remains open, although most sinologists answer it rather negatively.

A number of religious scholars attribute Confucianism to a religion in which the strict and virtue-oriented Heaven was considered the highest deity, and the great prophet was not a religious teacher proclaiming the truth of the divine revelation given to him, like Buddha or Jesus, but the sage Confucius, offering moral improvement within a strictly fixed ethical standards, consecrated by the authority of antiquity; the main object of the Confucian cult was the spirits of ancestors. In the form of ceremonial norms, Confucianism penetrated the life of every Chinese as the equivalent of religious ritual.

Confucius borrowed primitive beliefs: the cult of dead ancestors, the cult of the Earth, and the ancient Chinese’s veneration of their supreme deity and legendary ancestor Shang Di. Subsequently, he became associated with Heaven as the highest divine power that determines the fate of all life on Earth. The genetic connection with this source of wisdom and strength was encoded both in the very name of the country - “Celestial Empire”, and in the title of its ruler - “Son of Heaven”, which survived until the 20th century. - CONFUCIANITY, ethical and political teaching in China. The foundations of Confucianism were laid in the 6th century. BC by Confucius. Confucianism declared the power of the ruler (sovereign) sacred, bestowed by heaven, and the division of people into higher and lower (... ... Modern encyclopedia

Ethical and political teaching in China. The foundations of Confucianism were laid in the 6th century. BC e. Confucius. Expressing the interests of the hereditary aristocracy, Confucianism declared the power of the ruler (sovereign) sacred, bestowed by heaven, and the division of people into... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Confucianism- CONFUCIANITY, ethical and political teaching in China. The foundations of Confucianism were laid in the 6th century. BC by Confucius. Confucianism declared the power of the ruler (sovereign) sacred, bestowed by heaven, and the division of people into higher and lower (... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

CONFUCIANISM, Confucianism, many. no, cf. (book). A system of moral and philosophical views and traditions based on the teachings of the Chinese thinker Confucius (5th-6th centuries BC). Dictionary Ushakova. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

- (Rhu Jia school of great scribes), just like Taoism, originated in China in the 6th century BC. It is included in San Jiao, one of the three main religions of China. The philosophical system of Confucianism was created by Kongzi (Confucius). Predecessors

CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY

Introduction

    Human life is the main subject of Confucianism

    The Celestial Empire as the main condition of human life

    Confucianism about knowledge

    Historical development of Confucianism and the problem of man

Literature

INTRODUCTION

Confucianism, actually Ru-jia (literally - the school of scribes), is one of the most influential philosophical and religious movements in China. Founded by Confucius (Latin version), Kun Tzu (Chinese version), i.e. teacher Kun. Other names: Kong Fuzi; Kun Qiu, Kun Zhongni.

Confucius was born in 551(2) BC. His father was the great warrior of his time, famous for his exploits Shu Lianhe. When the boy was two years and three months old (the Chinese count the age of a child from the moment of conception), his father died. Shu Lianhe's two previous wives, who hated the heir's young mother, did not restrain their hatred of her, and the woman returned to her hometown. The boy grew up, differing from his peers in his heightened perception of injustice, a feeling of special love for his parents, and knowledge of many religious rituals (his mother, fulfilling the duty of a wife, read prayers for her deceased husband every day). Confucius knew the history of his family, dating back centuries. Having learned about the experience of his ancestors, among whom there were talented people who showed themselves in many areas of human activity, he concluded that military valor alone is not enough to achieve what he wants, other virtues are also needed.

When Confucius was seventeen years old, his mother died. With great difficulty, he searches for his father’s grave (neither he nor even his mother’s elder wives were allowed to accompany Shu Lianhe on his last journey) and, in accordance with religious rites, buried his mother nearby. Having fulfilled his filial duty, the young man returns home and lives alone.

Due to poverty, he was forced to do even women's work, which his deceased mother had previously done. Different sources report differently on how Confucius treated work that did not correspond to his origin, but it is more likely that he did not experience an aversion to “low” work. At the same time, Confucius remembered his belonging to the upper strata of society and intensively engaged in self-education. Later he would say: “At the age of fifteen I turned my thoughts to study. At the age of thirty I gained independence. At the age of forty I freed myself from doubts; at the age of sixty I learned to distinguish truth from falsehood. At the age of seventy I began to follow the desires of my heart and did not violate the ritual." Fate, as if in compensation for the unsuccessful beginning of his life, endowed him with health, remarkable strength, and natural intelligence. At nineteen, he marries the girl who accompanied him all his life, and soon they have a son.

From his youth, Confucius was tormented by the thought of reorganizing Chinese society, creating an ideal, fair state where everyone would be happy. Trying to make his idea a reality, he traveled widely around the country, offering his services as a minister to Chinese kings and princes. Confucius was engaged in reforming social life, the army, finance, culture, but none of his undertakings were ever completed - either due to the sophistication of the idea itself, or as a result of the opposition of his enemies. Wisdom gained Confucius great fame, and people from all over the country began to flock to him, wanting to become his students. Traveling from one kingdom to another, Confucius lamented: “There was not a single ruler who wanted to become my student.” The sage died in April 478(9) BC. with the words: “Who, after my death, will take the trouble to continue my teaching?” The teachings of Confucius were recorded by his students in the book “Conversations and Sayings.” Big influence The formation of Confucianism was influenced by the philosophers Mencius (372-289 BC) and Xunzi (313-238 BC).

1 Human life is the main subject of Confucianism

Confucians are primarily social activists and humanists. The school of Confucius taught: morality, language, politics and literature. The main characteristic of the school and direction of Confucius can be defined as fundamental traditionalism. Confucius himself said about his teaching: “I expound the old and do not create the new.”

Of the natural phenomena, Confucians are only interested in the sky, as the highest power that controls earthly life. Moreover, the characteristic of “being a controlling force” is an incomparably more significant characteristic of the sky for Confucians than its naturalness. This control force bears little resemblance to the creator god of Western religions. Heaven is not outside the world, but above the world, which, despite all the hardships, is not “a vale of sorrow and sin,” but the Celestial Empire. Heaven is fate, rock, the Tao of the Celestial Empire. Heaven is the law.

The main problem for Confucius is the rationalization of the cult of ancestors common to all Chinese culture. Confucius makes an attempt, paradoxical from the point of view of a European and natural for a Chinese, to preserve tradition, making it a little less a tradition and a little more a justified belief. What is commanded by tradition must be deeply rooted in a person through careful personal reflection on it. It is important to consciously and not blindly follow the rules established in the Celestial Empire. A person should live with dignity, and this will be the best way to follow the ancestors. And, on the contrary, for the sake of your worthy life, you need to follow what was commanded since ancient times.

This problem sounds in Confucius in the form of a question: “Without learning to serve people, can you serve spirits?” Man is predetermined by everything purely human, and it is unnatural to “bury his head in the sand of heavenly and spiritualistic affairs”, “to wander outside the world of dust and dirt.” Everything secret and inexpressible is beyond the boundaries of human consideration: the essence of heaven and Tao, the mystery of birth and death, the essence of the divine and supreme. But a person’s life, with its real course, is his business. “Without yet knowing what life is, how can one know what death is?” - asks Confucius. And a person can and must know what life is in order to be a human being and a worthy person.

Life is service to people. This is the most important and fundamental ethical idea of ​​Confucianism, determining both its advantages and disadvantages. Focusing on a detailed examination of “service to people,” both moral and state, Confucianism does not feel the need for distractions, abstractions, etc. Their place is taken by a thorough “analysis” of the generally accepted rules for organizing people’s lives.

Confucius's area of ​​thought was primarily practical morality. The main ethical concepts-commandments on which this reflection is based: “reciprocity”, “philanthropy”, “golden mean”. In general, they constitute the “right path” - the Tao, which should be followed by anyone who strives to live in harmony with himself, other people and Heaven, and therefore live happily.

“Reciprocity” is love for people, as initial friendliness, openness, cordiality, politeness towards the person with whom you enter into communication; love for one's neighbor in the truest sense of the word. The moral attitude “toward those who are distant” is “philanthropy.” This is love and respect for man in general and for human standards of life. Therefore, “philanthropy” presupposes, first of all, deference and respect towards parents, and in general, elders and those standing higher on the social ladder. The rule of the “golden mean” presupposes the ability to find a balance between intemperance and caution. Fulfilling these commandments allows you to implement the main ethical principle: do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself.

These commandments can be fulfilled through the five “simple and great” virtues: 1. wisdom, 2. mercy (humaneness), 3. fidelity, 4. reverence for elders, 5. courage. Possessing these virtues practically means being conscientious and having deep respect for yourself and others. And this is the main thing in the manifestation of philanthropy and mercy, which in Confucianism almost coincide.

Mercy is the essence of philanthropy. It occurs when a person has a “heart like people,” a heart that lives according to the rules of people and is therefore “sweet.” Mercy - unusual shape love, “sublimation” (using a modern term) of the directly experienced feeling of sympathy, cordiality. Mercy is rooted in this immediate feeling, but goes far beyond it. Mercy is the joy of life, the wisdom of kindness, a good and calm conscience. “He who knows is far from being a lover, and he who loves is far from being joyful.” In this capacity, mercy becomes a moral imperative, possibly having enormous social benefits. “The merciful finds peace in mercy, the wise finds benefit in mercy.” In addition, mercy, the most important “supporting structure” of the Celestial Empire, is a force that is the antipode of evil in the world.

Through the concepts of mercy, the ethical coordinates of human life naturally flow into social coordinates. The political structure of human life is determined by the degree of implementation of mercy in people's lives. According to Confucians, only selected and full-fledged people are capable of mercy, that is, they have “a heart like that of people,” the heart of those who are worthy to be called human. It is on these people that the social order and hierarchy of the Celestial Empire rests.

A person capable of mercy and following the commandments is a “noble man,” and he differs sharply from a “low man” for whom mercy is unattainable. “Noble man” and “low man” are both ethical and political concepts. Only one who fulfills the commandments and exercises mercy can be a worthy high dignitary and sovereign, since he exactly corresponds to the name “sovereign.” “If the sovereign treats his relatives properly, then philanthropy flourishes among the people.” The morality of a noble husband gives him the right to rule. If the top behaves properly, then “people with children behind their backs will come towards them from all four sides.”

2 The Celestial Empire as the main condition of human life

The political structure of the Middle Kingdom is based on morality, not on law. The power of moral example, and not a piling up of laws, should be the essence of power. And it is from this noble and high impulse that the deep tragic contradiction of Confucianism is born. Power based on morality acquires the characteristics of holiness, inviolability and inviolability. Therefore, attention to a person and the rules of his life develops into reverence for socially defined standards of morality and holiness.

Liberation from the mythologized tradition into the realm of secular morality turns out to be an obligatory dependence on the correct social order-ritual, which is unconditional both in its moral foundations and in external ceremonial forms. Confucianism gives this dependence a positive meaning, since it understands it not only as a political, but also as a cultural form. The state task is understood almost aesthetically. Music and art are the main tools for governing a country.

A personality liberated from mythology is liberated not into individual freedom, but into a skillfully constructed “mosaic” of rules of human behavior. Personality does not become an end in itself; it is part of the social world order. The main structures of this world order are humanity – “zhen”, virtue – “de” and order – “li”.

For subordination and order, Confucius develops the principle of justice and orderliness - “and”. A person must act as order and his position dictate. Good behavior is behavior that respects order and humanity, for “a noble man understands what is good, just as small people understand what is profitable.”

Correct behavior requires a special moral force - conscience. Conscience is actually integrity, orderly behavior, and inner, spiritual and intellectual life. Correct behavior is the path of the educated, who have moral strength (de) and who should be entrusted with the management of society.

It is necessary to achieve the proper level of management and strive to ensure that later everything is subject to as few changes as possible. To do this, you need to constantly bring things into line with their former meaning. This will be a reasonable, rationalized cult of ancestors. This most important process of social life is called “correction of names.” The requirement to be a real sovereign, dignitary, father or son means that in case of any deviation from the norm one should return to it, correcting the name, or correcting the name. “If the names are wrong, the speech is contradictory; if the speech is contradictory, things are not successful; when things are not successful, the rules of behavior and music do not flourish; when the rules of behavior and music do not flourish, punishments and fines are imposed incorrectly; the people have nowhere to put their feet and rest. hands".

“Corrections of names” should theoretically help practical self-knowledge, so that a social order based on reason and tradition can emerge. This is a society that gives an individual the opportunity not only and not so much to engage in self-improvement, but also to fulfill his purpose, acting for the benefit of people and the state.

3 Confucianism about knowledge

Ideas about reason, cognition and knowledge are determined by the general orientation of the political and moral views of Confucianism. Knowledge for Confucians is, first of all, knowledge of people (knowledge aimed at understanding people, and knowledge that is human knowledge). In rare people there is innate knowledge. These people are above everyone else. Confucius believed that he himself did not possess it. He is a man of learning. These people are behind those with innate knowledge. The third type of knowledge is knowledge about nature, which is necessary for those who work, primarily farmers.

Learning is not the achievement of a sum of knowledge; it is always associated with reflection. Training provides the opportunity to: learn the behavior to perform the ritual correctly, and master reliable cognitive processes. So reliable that it will allow you to fairly judge the subject without having specific knowledge about it. “Do I have knowledge? No, but when a low person asks me about something, even if I don’t know anything, I can look at this issue from both sides and tell him everything.”

4 Historical development of Confucianism and the problem of man

Being a practical philosophy, a teaching philosophy, a philosophy of man and not of nature, Confucianism carries within itself a largely heterogeneous potential. Such a philosophy is maximally rooted in a person, open and natural to him, but it has weak prospects for theoretical development. It can either turn into a set of banal moral teachings, wonderful, but, unfortunately, erased from historical use, or become fully philosophical anthropology (philosophy of man), that is, turn to the problem of human nature and its theoretical study.

In Confucianism, the latter occurs quite early, although Confucians cannot be called representatives of theoretical philosophical anthropology. But the disciples of Confucius are quite definitely divided into those who defend the thesis about the good nature of man, approaching in many ways to their opponents - the Taoists, and those who defend the thesis about the bad nature of man and put forward ideas that partially coincide with the views of the Legalists and Mohists, who also oppose Confucianism

One of the famous followers of Confucius who adhered to the thesis of the good nature of man was Mencius. He believed that “humanity is the heart of a person. Duty is the path of man. What a pity that people give up their path and don’t follow it, they lose their hearts and don’t know how to find them!” All the troubles of the Celestial Empire are due to the fact that people forget about their natural morality.

Gao Tzu, who is talking to him, says: “Human nature is like a willow tree, and the sense of duty is like a wooden bowl. To cultivate humanity and duty in a person is like carving a bowl from a willow tree.” To this, Mencius objects: “Can you carve a bowl from willow without violating the nature of the willow? After all, in order to cut a bowl, you must first mutilate the willow. So, by mutilating a tree, you will make a cup out of it, and by mutilating a person, you will make him humane and fair? If the entire Celestial Empire will henceforth consider humanity and duty as evil, then only your speeches will be to blame.”

Only genuine natural mercy of a person, to which a person can, having lost it, return, returning to himself, is the basis of the well-being of a person and society. Human nature, which is essentially good, determines the social structure.

Sen Tzu adhered to the opposite thesis about the evil nature of man. He believed that the social order is more important than human nature, since only it can compensate for its original depravity. Everything good in a person can only be acquired. People by nature strive only for profit, are uncompromising and hateful. Obedient adherence to human nature, obedience to feelings inevitably gives rise to rivalry. In this case, people will violate the established order and good morals, which will lead to chaos in the state. Therefore, it is necessary to change his nature by educating a person, teaching him rules (“li”), justice (“and”) and duty. Moreover, all the rules and the very idea of ​​justice are created by completely wise people and do not arise from human nature.

CONCLUSION

In fact, it would be correct to call Confucianism not a religion, but a philosophy. Despite this, it, like other Eastern teachings, recognizes the existence of spirits, demons, and gods. Confucianism, with its moral and practical orientation, as has been said, is in fact the official ethical and political doctrine of China. It permeates Chinese culture so deeply that even today Confucianism does not need to be a religion and temple service as much as, for example, Taoism or Buddhism, since, regardless of religion, every Chinese can to some extent be called a Confucian.

Balanced, precise, clear and at the same time deep knowledge about the moral and political practice of human life is the goal of Confucianism. The issues identified in Confucian philosophy become the subject of the Mohist and Legalist schools, which, however, constitute the opposition to Confucianism.

Ancient China………………………………...7-8 1.4. Ancient Chinese Schools Abstract >> Culture and art

Without doubt. Let from the point of view philosopher Confucianism was simply “a mixture of deep and foamy... not the depth of it philosophy. In the specific conditions of medieval China Confucianism actually replaced...

Confucianism originated in China in 550 BC, and its founder was Confucius

There are many different religions in the modern world. However, Confucianism is one of the biggest, as it carries high moral principles and foundations. Now Confucianism has a large number of followers and is rightfully considered one of the most widespread religions in the world.

The Birth of Confucianism

Quite a lot of facts are known about where Confucianism originated. The religion originated in 550-471 BC. Then over the years it developed and received its recognition. In addition to Confucius, the ideas of religion were studied, supplemented and promoted by his students, of whom there were a decent number. Three hundred years after the death of Confucius, the Chinese recognized the religion as the main one, which they follow to this day.

Now we will talk about what Confucianism is - its definition in simple language is a religious and political teaching that should be based solely on moral principles, moral ideals, as well as social order. This religion is considered a way of life that has long supported and strengthened the consolidation and unity of Chinese society in all areas of life. Everyone knows that the religion of Confucianism has always played a significant role for the Chinese people - it determined the basic principles that have guided the people of China for many years, and this belief has become one of the components of the Chinese mentality.

Founder of religion

The founder of Confucianism is the famous Chinese teacher Confucius. He came from a fairly noble family, however, his family did not have much financial wealth. The opportunity to study appeared only after reaching the age of fifteen. At twenty-two, Confucius decided to study on his own and gradually grew into the most famous and educated teacher in all of China. In his daily practice, he consistently maintained that the basic sciences that need to be mastered to perfection are:

  • Morality.
  • Language.
  • Policy.
  • Culture

At the age of fifty, Confucius entered politics and became a very high-ranking official. However, his career in this field did not work out, as he soon resigned and left this job. The main reason for this was the intrigues that members of the government were engaged in. After this, Confucius traveled throughout China for thirteen years, because he could not understand exactly how to properly use his knowledge. After some time, the ideologist returned to his hometown of Lu and decided to once again teach basic disciplines to the younger generation. In addition, Confucius was engaged in the fact that from time to time he collected and edited texts that were important, in his opinion. Later, these developments were included in the books of the Confucian canon (the main provisions of Confucianism).

Video about what Confucianism is

After his death, his house was recognized as a temple, which became a place of pilgrimage. Confucius had many students who admired their teacher, followed him and wrote down all his teachings. In addition, students often wrote down their own thoughts that they considered important to read and learn. On this basis, the main creation of religion was compiled - the work “Conversations and Sayings”, on the pages of which all the fundamental and complementary provisions were collected.

The essence of Confucianism

Each religion has its own teachings and core ideals that must be followed. The essence of Confucianism is to establish harmony in all spheres of society (state, society, family, people) and observe high moral principles and moral principles. In his teachings, Confucius touches on the main problem - education and relationships between people. He believes that all the existing problems in society arise from this, and that now the Chinese people need to eradicate these shortcomings, because only in this case will they achieve an ideal, educated society.

Ideas of Confucianism

The main ideas of Confucianism can be briefly described based on the goals of Confucius - following high spiritual values ​​and strict adherence to moral principles. Confucius argued that it is necessary to treat people the same way you treat yourself. Based on this, he identified the main qualities that are ideal for his goals:

  • Philanthropy.
  • Wisdom.
  • Courage.

Confucius believed that the entire state is a large unified family, and that each person should respect not only his parents, but also all the inhabitants of China. He also considered human culture and his upbringing to be one of the main features. In his opinion, every resident must comply with all the rules of etiquette and behavior in a civilized society.

Principles of Confucianism

Confucius, when asked why he did not lead a religious life and was not interested in rituals, replied that since he leads a moral life and observes basic moral principles, he should not worry about everything else, since he is pure before Heaven.

The principles of Confucianism are embedded in morality and ethics. Among these principles it is customary to highlight:

  • Honoring your parents even if they treat you with disrespect.
  • At work, every person should not pursue personal gain. He must be driven by a sense of duty.
  • Respect should reign in relations between people, since all people are brothers.

About what standards social life Confucianism asserted can be judged from the essence and principles of Confucianism. These include observing the rules of behavior in society, helping those in need, respecting others and the pursuit of knowledge. Confucius considered all these categories to be integral norms of a highly developed society.

Features of Confucianism

The features of Confucianism formed the basis of government and a developed society. In the modern world, the knowledge and teachings of a given religion are used as necessary knowledge in order to be able to enter government service. Confucius also said that his main goal was to achieve cohesion and respectful relationships within Chinese society and create ideal state. The teacher also said that honoring ancestors is one of the most important conditions that must be observed.

Video about the features of Confucianism

It is noteworthy that Confucius did not differentiate people according to social status and treated all segments of the population equally. Now it is very difficult to talk about whether Confucianism is a religion or just a great teaching on how to behave and what norms to adhere to.

Religious texts of Confucianism

Each religion has its own sacred texts, the provisions of which true believers must observe.

Surprisingly, the sacred texts of Confucianism were compiled exclusively by students of Confucius. The teacher himself does not own any of the nine canons, with the possible exception of Chun-Qiu.

In this religion, there are two main collections that contain the main ideas of Confucianism:

  • "Wu-Ching." Contains five canons. The I Ching is a book that was used for fortune telling in ancient world. "Shu-Ching" - contains information about ancient history Chinese state. "Shi Jing" - consists of state anthems. "Li-Ji" - contains descriptions of various rituals. It is noteworthy that this canon has an earlier origin than the religion itself. However, it was supplemented by Confucius himself. “Chun-Qiu” - this book, according to many, is of the greatest value and interest. It contains information about the period in which Confucius himself lived, and also has reliable information about the life of that era.

  • "Sy-Shu." This text consists of four books, which indicate the basic moral qualities inherent in Confucianism, as well as some provisions about the sense of proportion and human personality. It also included a collection of conversations between Confucius and his students and basic advice on the economic and political state and structure of the state.

The symbol of Confucianism is a certain Chinese character, which represents before us the figure of Confucius himself, made in the written language of the Chinese.

Did you know what is special about Confucianism? How do you feel about this religion? Share your opinion on

The desire for order and law, the focus on harmonizing all levels of existence, the importance of continuity of spiritual tradition, pedagogical and moral ideas are the basic components of the philosophy of Confucianism, the founder of which is the famous Chinese sage Confucius (Kun Tzu).

Confucianism and Tao

To a European, the teaching may seem simple and understandable, especially when compared with Taoism (the ancestor is Lao Tzu), but this is a superficial point of view. Chinese thinking is characterized by syncretism, and it is no coincidence that in the tradition there is a figurative comparison of Taoism with the heart, and Confucianism with the flesh: this emphasizes their closeness and mutual complementarity.

Both teachings are focused on the ancient Tao - the prototype of the ideal existence of the Universe. The differences lie in views on methods of cultural restoration. The philosophy of Confucianism combines reverence for antiquity with an orientation toward the future. The main goal is defined as the creation of a new person in a renewed society.

An important point: Confucius did not deal specifically and outside the holistic meaning of his philosophy with issues of state building. Mystical knowledge was brought to the level of secular government of the country. A Chinese sage becomes a politician to bring the Celestial Empire to harmony.

To solve this problem, according to Confucius, it is necessary to harmonize both the process of spiritual improvement of each person and the system of government with wu chang / wu xing (five constants / five movements) - the archetype of Tao. The central element of this archetype is li (ritual).

The meaning of ritual in Confucianism

The sacred essence of the ritual is the core moment of the teaching. Gestures and words verified according to ritual canons are not mechanized reproduction of elements ancient tradition, but inclusion in the rhythms of the Universe.

Figuratively, the philosophy of Confucianism considers ritual as a musical mood for deep essence life. Every second of human existence must reproduce the integrity of existence.

Ritual canons are associated with wen (culture). They play an important role in the process of restoring the spiritual tradition of the past. They perform a restraining function: they bring all human affects to he (consent) and combine diverse elements of culture into a holistic organism.

The ritual appears in Confucianism simultaneously in three forms:

  • as a principle of hierarchical organization of existence;
  • a form of symbolic thinking;
  • a way of structuring social life.

The philosophy of Confucius underlies the modern Chinese tradition. According to oriental scientists, the reason for the popularity of the teaching is simple: the sage constantly pointed out the presence of a universal order in the Universe, which accepts both the spiritual and the material, the individual and society, man and nature.

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