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When interacting at a collider of high-energy particles, a huge number of various particles are formed.

This process is called multiple birth, and its various characteristics are predicted using the theory of strong interactions - quantum chromodynamics (QCD). However, the results of recent similar experiments at the LHC (Large Hadron Collider) do not coincide with the predictions of models based on the results of previous experiments at other accelerators. ABOUT possible reasons Nick Brook, Professor of the University of Bristol and one of the leading experts in the field of multiple particle production, spoke about this discrepancy and the opening horizons of new experimental high-energy physics at the Ginzburg Conference.

The technique of two experimental projects taking place at the LHC is ideal for identifying produced particles. These are the ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) project, optimized for studying heavy ion collisions, and LHCb, designed to study B-mesons - particles containing a "beautiful" quark. And the very information about the birth of particles is a necessary foundation for the further development of QCD. Nick Brook comments: “The observed particle distributions characterize the hadronic state of matter and are sensitive to the underlying quantum chromodynamics of proton-proton interactions. ALICE, ATLAS and CMS have already measured particle distributions in the central region of interaction, and the geometry of LHCb allows tracking the dynamics of collisions in the remote region as well. This gives us much-needed information for developing models and improving Monte Carlo event generators.”

Quantum chromodynamics arose in the 70s of the last century as a microscopic theory describing the strong interaction on subhadron scales, in which quarks, gluons and particles composed of them - hadrons, including the protons and neutrons of the atomic nucleus bound by the strong interaction, participate. The basic postulate of quantum chromodynamics ascribes to all quarks a special quantum number called color charge or color. Such a familiar word has nothing to do with ordinary optical characteristics, but it succinctly emphasizes the fact that in nature quarks are found only in the form of colorless combinations - hadrons made up of three quarks (recall the analogy: red, green and blue add up to white) , or gluons from a quark and an antiquark with an anticolor.

QCD predictions about the parameters of multiple particle production are given either in an analytical form or in the form of numerical computer calculations based on Monte Carlo models, which can be compared in detail with experimental data. These models are called event generators in the sense that the probability of occurrence of certain phenomena in these computer calculations is considered to be proportional to the probability of the corresponding event in the real world. All these models worked well in agreement with past experiments at other accelerators and even had some predictive power, but they still do not match the new results obtained at the LHC.

Andrey Leonidov, professor of the Lebedev Physical Institute and leading researcher of the high-energy physics sector, comments: “The study of multiple production at high energies is one of the fundamental physical problems, and Brook's report was devoted to the array of experimental information that was accumulated at the LHC collider. A very interesting situation has developed there: the existing models do not describe many essential properties of events. In their typical design, the physics of soft hadron jets and hard hadron radiation are somehow stitched together, and they themselves have been calibrated to successfully describe FNAL, the previous accelerator. As a result, there was literally not a single graph in this report in which the theory coincided with the new experiment. That is, modern models do not describe many properties of multiple birth at all.”

Thus, Professor Brook spoke about discrepancies between predictions and real data on the appearance of particles with "strange" quarks in their composition or violations in the ratio of baryon and antibaryon matter. But all these inconsistencies, as Brook emphasized, only untie the hands of researchers and once again show the complex structure of QCD. After all, new data can help improve models of event generators, soft particle production, multiparticle collisions, and many other phenomena.

Andrey Leonidov also agrees with the English physicist's optimism: “All previous models in new experiments have shown themselves to be unsuccessful to varying degrees, and this creates an interesting field for study. But after all, these same models were not just assembled: this is the best that humanity can offer on this topic. Not that some provincial people wrote something there, and this is accidentally used at the LHC. The LHC uses the best there is, and this best is not working well so far. And this topic is very important, because the processes of multiple birth are constantly taking place in the collider. These are dominant processes with a large cross section, and they potentially affect all other processes and determine their background. In addition, it is fundamental and interesting. So there is nothing sad, we are waiting for new results!

When high-energy particles collide, multiple production of new particles is observed

E. S.,
, MOU secondary school No. 16 with UIOP, Lysva, Perm kr.

Origin quantum physics

Find the beginning of everything, and you will understand a lot!
Kozma Prutkov

Educational task of the lesson: introduce the concept of discreteness of matter, form the concept of quantum-wave dualism of matter, justify the introduction of Planck's formulas and the de Broglie wavelength.

Developing task of the lesson: develop logical thinking, the ability to compare and analyze situations, to see interdisciplinary connections.

Educational task of the lesson: to form dialectical-materialistic thinking.

Physics as a science is characterized by universal human values ​​and a huge humanitarian potential. In the course of its study, the main scientific methods are revealed ( scientific experiment, modeling, thought experiment, creation and structure of scientific theory). Students should be given the opportunity to look at the world through the eyes of a physicist in order to understand the eternity and constant change of the world - a world in which there is so much huge and negligible small, very fast and extraordinarily slow, simple and difficult to know - to feel the constant desire of man for knowledge, delivering the deepest satisfaction, to get acquainted with examples of the deep experience of "scientific doubts" and the bold movement along an unfamiliar path in search of elegance, brevity and clarity.

I. Teacher. When we started studying optics, I asked the question: “What is light?” How would you respond to it now? Try to formulate your idea in one sentence. Start with the words “light is ...” F.I. Tyutchev has the following lines: "Again with greedy eyes / / I drink the life-giving Light." Please try to comment on these lines from the point of view of physics. In poetry - from Homer to the present day - the sensations born of light have always been given a special place. Most often, poets perceived light as a special luminous, radiant liquid.

To make today's conversation about light complete, I would like to read the words of S.I. Vavilov: “The continuous, victorious war for truth, never ending in final victory, however, has its own undeniable justification. On the way to understanding the nature of light, man received microscopes, telescopes, rangefinders, radio, X-rays; this research helped to master the energy of the atomic nucleus. In search of truth, man infinitely expands the area of ​​his mastery of nature. But isn't that the true task of science? (highlighted by me. - E.U.)»

II. Teacher. In the process of studying physics, we got acquainted with many theories, for example, MKT, thermodynamics, the theory electromagnetic field Maxwell and others. Today we are completing the study of wave optics. We must sum up the study of the topic and, perhaps, put an end to the question: "What is light?" Could you show the role of theory in the process of understanding nature using examples from wave optics?

Let us recall that the significance of a theory lies not only in the fact that it makes it possible to explain many phenomena, but also in the fact that it makes it possible to predict new, not yet known phenomena. physical phenomena, properties of bodies and regularities. Thus, the wave theory explained the phenomena of interference, diffraction, polarization, refraction, dispersion of light and made it possible to make a "discovery at the tip of a pen" - a prediction. In 1815, an unknown retired engineer, Augustin Fresnel, submitted a paper to the Paris Academy of Sciences explaining the phenomenon of diffraction. The analysis of the work was entrusted to well-known scientists - physicist D. Arago and mathematician S. Poisson. Poisson, reading this work with predilection, discovered a glaring absurdity in Fresnel's conclusions: if a small round target is placed in a stream of light, then a spot of light should appear in the center of the shadow! What do you think happened next? A few days later, Arago set up an experiment and found that Fresnel was right! So, the 19th century is the century of the triumph of wave optics.

What is light? Light is an electromagnetic transverse wave.

Finishing the study of a large section of physics related to the nature of light and electromagnetic waves, I propose to independently complete the test task "Electromagnetic waves" (see Appendix 1). We carry out a frontal check of execution.

III. Teacher. And here is what the London newspapers wrote on the eve of 1900: “When festive illuminations were lit on the streets of London from bright bulbs instead of dim oil bowls, cabs rolled up one after another to the old building on Fleet Street. On a wide, brightly lit staircase, respectable gentlemen dressed in robes ascended into the hall. Then the members of the Royal Society of London came to their next meeting. Tall, gray-haired, with a bushy beard, Sir William Thomson (do you know about his merits in the field of physics? - E.U.), eight years ago bestowed from the hands of Queen Victoria by the title of peer and Lord Kelvin (is this name familiar to you? - E.U.), and now the president of the society, began his New Year's speech. The great physicist of the 19th century noted the successes achieved in last century, listed the merits of those present ...

The crowd nodded their heads in approval. To be modest, they did a good job. And Sir William was right when he said that the grandiose building of physics was built, that only small finishing touches remained.

True (Lord Kelvin interrupted his speech for a moment), in the cloudless sky of physics there are two small clouds, two problems that have not yet been explained from the standpoint of classical physics ... But these phenomena are temporary and fleeting. Sitting comfortably in their antique high-backed chairs, the gentlemen smiled. Everyone knew what it was about:

1) classical physics could not explain Michelson's experiments, which did not determine the influence of the Earth's motion on the speed of light. In all reference systems (both moving and resting relative to the Earth), the speed of light is the same - 300,000 km / s;

2) classical physics could not explain the black body radiation graph obtained experimentally.”

Sir William could not even imagine what kind of lightning would soon strike from these clouds! Looking ahead, I will say: the solution of the first problem will lead to a revision of the classical ideas about space and time, to the creation of the theory of relativity; the solution of the second problem - to the creation of a new theory - quantum. That's the solution to the second problem and will be discussed today in the lesson!

IV. (Students make notes in their notebooks: Date Lesson No. The topic of the lesson is “The Origin of Quantum Physics”.) At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. in physics, a problem arose that needed to be urgently addressed: a theoretical explanation of the radiation graph of a completely black body. What is a perfect black body? ( student hypotheses. Demonstration of the video fragment "Thermal radiation" .)

Teacher. Write down: "Absolutely black body is a body capable of absorbing without reflection the entire incident radiation flux, all electromagnetic waves of any wavelength (any frequency)."

But absolutely black bodies have one more feature. Remember why people with black skin color live in the equatorial territories? “Black bodies, if heated, will glow brighter than any other body, that is, they radiate energy in all frequency ranges,” write this down in your notebooks.

Scientists have experimentally determined the radiation spectrum of a completely black body. ( Draws a graph.) Rν is the spectral density of energy luminosity - the energy of electromagnetic radiation emitted per unit of time from a unit of body surface area in a unit frequency interval ν. Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, but the theoretical radiation curve of an absolutely black body, built on the basis of this theory, had a discrepancy with the experimental curve in the high-frequency region. The best minds of that time worked on the problem: the British Lord Rayleigh and J. Jeans, the Germans P. Kirchhoff and V. Wien, the Moscow professor V.A. Michelson. Nothing worked!

Suggest a way out of the situation. The theoretical curve has a discrepancy with the experimental one. How to be and what to do? ( Students express hypotheses: conduct experiments more carefully, - conducted, the result is the same; change the theory - but this is a catastrophe, the whole foundation of classical physics, which has been created over thousands of years, is collapsing!) The created situation in physics was called ultraviolet catastrophe.

Write down: "The methods of classical physics turned out to be insufficient to explain the radiation of a black body in the high frequency region - it was an 'ultraviolet catastrophe'."

Who can guess why this crisis was named ultraviolet catastrophe, instead of infrared or violet? A crisis broke out in physics! Greek word κρίση [ a crisis] denote a hard transition from one stable state to another. The problem had to be solved, and solved urgently!

v.Teacher. And so, on October 19, 1900, at a meeting of the Physical Society, the German scientist M. Planck proposed using the formula E=h v. Planck's friend and colleague Heinrich Rubens sat all night at his desk, comparing his measurements with the results given by Planck's formula, and was amazed: his friend's formula described the radiation spectrum of an absolutely black body to the smallest detail! So, Planck's formula eliminated the "ultraviolet catastrophe", but at what cost! Planck proposed, contrary to established views, to consider that the emission of radiant energy by the atoms of matter occurs discretely, that is, in portions, in quanta. "Quantum" ( quant) in Latin means simply quantity .

What does "discretely" mean? Let's do a thought experiment. Imagine that you have a bank in your hands, full of water. Is it possible to cast half? And take a sip? And even less? In principle, it is possible to decrease or increase the mass of water by an arbitrarily small amount. Now let's imagine that we have in our hands a box with children's cubes of 100 g each. Is it possible to reduce, for example, 370 g? No! You can't break cubes! Therefore, the mass of the box can change discretely, only in portions that are multiples of 100 g! The smallest amount by which the mass of the box can be changed can be called portion, or mass quantum.

Thus, a continuous flow of energy from a heated black body turned into a "machine-gun burst" of separate portions - energy quanta. It would seem nothing special. But in fact, this meant breaking the entire excellently constructed building of classical physics, since instead of the basic fundamental laws built on the principle of continuity, Planck proposed the principle of discreteness. Planck himself did not like the idea of ​​discreteness either. He sought to formulate the theory in such a way that it would fit perfectly within the framework of classical physics.

But there was a man who, on the contrary, even more decisively went beyond the framework of classical ideas. This man was A. Einstein. In order for you to understand the revolutionary nature of Einstein's views, I will only say that, using Planck's idea, he laid the foundations for the theory of lasers (quantum generators) and the principle of using the energy of the atom.

Academician S.I. For a very long time Vavilov could not get used to the concept of light as a substance of quanta, but he became an ardent admirer of this hypothesis and even invented a way to observe quanta. He calculated that the eye is able to distinguish the illumination that 52 quanta of green light create.

So, according to Planck, light is ... ( student statements).

VI. Teacher. Doesn't Planck's hypothesis remind you of the already well-known hypothesis about the nature of light? Sir Isaac Newton proposed to consider light as consisting of the smallest particles - corpuscles. Any luminous body emits them in all directions. They fly in straight lines and if they hit our eyes, we see their source. Each color has its own corpuscles and they differ, most likely, in that they have different masses. The joint flow of corpuscles creates white light.

In the time of Sir Isaac Newton, physics was called natural philosophy. Why? Read (see Appendix 2) one of the basic laws of dialectics - the law of negation of negation. Try to apply it to the question of the nature of light. ( Students' reasoning.)

So, according to the hypothesis of M. Planck, light is a stream of particles, corpuscles, quanta, each of which has energy E=h v. Please analyze this formula: what is ν? what's happened h (one of the students will definitely suggest that this is some kind of constant named after Planck)? What is the unit of Planck's constant? what is the value of the constant ( work with the table of physical constants)? What is the name of Planck's constant? What is the physical meaning of Planck's constant?

To appreciate the beauty of Planck's formula, let's turn to the problems of ... biology. I invite students to answer questions from the field of biology (Appendix 3).

The mechanism of vision. Through vision, we receive about 90% of information about the world. Therefore, the question of the mechanism of vision has always interested a person. Why does the human eye, and indeed most of the inhabitants of the Earth, perceive only a small range of waves from the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that exists in nature? And if a person had infrared vision like pit vipers, for example?

At night we would see, as during the day, all organic bodies, because their temperature differs from the temperature of inanimate bodies. But the most powerful source of such rays for us would be our own body. With the susceptibility of the eye to infrared radiation, the light of the Sun for us would simply fade against the background of its own radiation. We would see nothing, our eyes would be useless.

Why don't our eyes react to infrared light? We calculate the energy of infrared and visible light quanta using the formula:

The energy of infrared quanta is less than the energy of visible light quanta. Several quanta cannot "get together" to cause an action that is beyond the power of one quantum - in the microcosm there is a one-on-one interaction between a quantum and a particle. Only a quantum of visible light, which has an energy greater than the quantum of infrared light, can cause a reaction of the rhodopsin molecule, i.e. retinal rods. The effect of a quantum of visible light on the retina can be compared to the impact of a tennis ball that moved... a multi-storey building. (So ​​high is the sensitivity of the retina!)

Why does the eye not react to ultraviolet radiation? UV radiation is also invisible to the eye, although the energy of UV quanta is much greater than that of visible light quanta. The retina is sensitive to UV rays, but they are absorbed by the lens, otherwise they would have a destructive effect.

In the process of evolution, the eyes of living organisms have adapted to perceive the radiation energy of the most powerful source on Earth - the Sun - and it is precisely those waves that account for the maximum energy of solar radiation incident on Earth.

Photosynthesis. IN green plants not for a single second does the process stop, thanks to which all living things receive oxygen for breathing and food. This is photosynthesis. The leaf has a green color due to the presence of chlorophyll in its cells. Photosynthesis reactions occur under the action of radiation in the red-violet part of the spectrum, and waves with a frequency corresponding to the green part of the spectrum are reflected, so the leaves have a green color.

Chlorophyll molecules are "responsible" for the unique process of converting light energy into the energy of organic substances. It begins with the absorption of a quantum of light by a chlorophyll molecule. Absorption of a quantum of light leads to chemical reactions photosynthesis, which include many links.

The whole daylight hours, chlorophyll molecules are “engaged” in the fact that, having received a quantum, they use its energy, turning it into the potential energy of an electron. Their action can be compared with the action of a mechanism that lifts a ball up a ladder rung. Rolling down the steps, the ball loses its energy, but it does not disappear, but is converted into the internal energy of the substances formed during photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll molecules "work" only during daylight hours when visible light hits them. At night, they "rest", despite the fact that there is no shortage of electromagnetic radiation: the earth and plants emit infrared light, but the energy of the quanta of this range is less than that which is necessary for photosynthesis. In the process of evolution, plants have adapted to accumulate the energy of the most powerful source of energy on Earth - the Sun.

Heredity.(Students answer questions 1-3 from Appendix 3, card "Heredity"). The hereditary traits of organisms are encoded in DNA molecules and are passed from generation to generation in a matrix way. How to induce a mutation? Under the influence of what radiation does the process of mutation occur?

To cause a single mutation, it is necessary to impart energy to the DNA molecule sufficient to change the structure of some section of the DNA gene. It is known that γ-quanta and X-rays, as biologists put it, highly mutagenic– their quanta carry energy sufficient to change the structure of a DNA segment. IR radiation, and apparently, such an action is "not under force", their frequency, and hence the energy, is too small. Now, if the energy of the electromagnetic field was absorbed not in portions, but continuously, then these radiations would be able to act on DNA, because in relation to its germ cells, the organism itself is the closest and most powerful, constantly operating source of radiation.

By the beginning of the 30s. 20th century physicists, thanks to the advances in quantum mechanics, had a feeling of such power that they turned to life itself. There are many similarities in genetics. Biologists have discovered a discrete indivisible particle - a gene - that can move from one state to another. Changes in the configuration of genes are associated with changes in chromosomes, which causes mutations, and it turned out to be possible to explain this on the basis of quantum concepts. One of the founders molecular biology who received Nobel Prize for research in the field of the mutation process in bacteria and bacteriophages, was the German theoretical physicist M. Delbrück. In 1944, a small book by the physicist E. Schrödinger “What is life?” was published. It gave a clear and concise presentation of the foundations of genetics, revealed the connection between genetics and quantum mechanics. The book gave impetus to the assault on the gene by physicists. Thanks to the work of American physicists J. Watson, F. Crick, M. Wilkins, biologists have learned how the most basic “living” molecule, DNA, is “arranged”. X-ray diffraction analysis allowed to see it.

VII. Teacher. I return to the question: what is light? ( Student responses.) It turns out that physics returned to the Newtonian particle of light - the corpuscle - rejecting the idea of ​​light as a wave? No! It is impossible to cross out the entire legacy of the wave theory of light! After all, diffraction, interference and many other phenomena have long been known, which experimentally confirm that light is a wave. How to be? ( student hypotheses.)

There is only one thing left: to somehow combine waves with particles. Recognize that there is one circle of phenomena where light exhibits wave properties, and there is another circle in which the corpuscular essence of light comes first. In other words, write it down! - light has quantum wave dualism! This is the dual nature of light. It was very difficult for physicists to combine two hitherto incompatible ideas into one. A particle is something solid, unchanging, having certain dimensions, limited in space. A wave is something fluid, unsteady, without clear boundaries. More or less visually, these representations were combined with the help of the concept of a wave packet. This is something like a wave “cut off” at both ends, or rather, a bunch of waves traveling in space as a single whole. The clot can be compressed or stretched depending on the environment in which it enters. It resembles a flying spring.

What characteristic of a wave packet changes when light passes from one medium to another? ( Student responses.)

In 1927, the American physicist Lewis suggested calling this wave packet photon(from the Greek φωτóς [phos, photos] - ) . What is a photon? ( Students work with the textbook, draw conclusions.)

Conclusions. A photon is: a quantum of electromagnetic radiation a massless particle, a photon at rest does not exist a particle moving in vacuum at the speed of light c\u003d 3 10 8 m / s this is a single whole and indivisible, the existence of a fractional part of a photon is impossible a particle with energy E=h v, where h= 6.63 10 -34 J s; ν is the frequency of light a particle that has momentum is an electrically neutral particle.

The world is so arranged that light most often shows us a wave nature, until we consider its interaction with matter. And the substance appears before us in a corpuscular form, until we begin to consider the nature of interatomic bonds, transfer processes, electrical resistance, etc. But regardless of our position at each moment, a microparticle has both properties.

The process of creating a quantum theory and, in particular, a quantum theory of light is deeply dialectical. The ideas and images of the old, classical mechanics and optics, enriched with new ideas, creatively applied to physical reality, ultimately gave rise to a fundamentally new physical theory.

Exercise: read the philosophical law of the unity and struggle of opposites and draw a conclusion regarding two theories of light: wave and quantum theories of light.

VIII. Teacher. In 1924, the French physicist Louis de Broglie (a former military radiotelegraph operator) expressed completely paradoxical, even for the then bold physicists, thoughts about the nature of the motion of atomic particles. De Broglie suggested that the properties of electrons and other particles are in principle no different from the properties of quanta! It followed from this that electrons and other particles should also exhibit wave properties, which should be observed, for example, electron diffraction. And it really was discovered in the experiments, which in 1927, independently of each other, were carried out by American physicists K.-J. Davisson and L. Germer, Soviet physicist P.S. Tartakovsky and English physicist J.-P. Thomson. The de Broglie wavelength is calculated by the formula:

We solve problems for calculating the de Broglie wavelength (Appendix 4).

As the calculation shows, a valence electron moving inside an atom at a speed of 0.01 With, diffracts on an ionic crystal lattice as a wave with a wavelength of ~ 10 -10 m, and the wavelength of a bullet flying at a speed of about 500 m / s is about 10 -34 m. There is no way to register such a small wavelength, and therefore the bullet and behaves like a real particle.

The struggle between the ideas of discreteness and continuity of matter, which has been going on since the very birth of science, ended with the merging of both ideas in the idea of ​​the dual properties of elementary particles. The use of the wave properties of electrons made it possible to significantly increase the resolution of microscopes. The wavelength of an electron depends on the speed, and hence on the voltage that accelerates the electrons (see problem 5 in Appendix 4). In most electron microscopes, the de Broglie wavelength is hundreds of times smaller than the wavelength of light. It became possible to see even smaller objects, down to single molecules.

Wave mechanics was born, the foundation of the vast edifice of quantum physics. De Broglie laid the foundations for the theory of interference and diffraction of light, gave a new derivation of Planck's formula, and established a deep correspondence between the motion of particles and the waves associated with them.

Studying any theory, we necessarily noted the limits of applicability of this theory. The limits of applicability of quantum theory have not yet been established, however, its laws should be applied to describe the motion of microparticles in small areas of space and at high frequencies of electromagnetic waves, when measuring instruments allow registering individual quanta (energy ~ 10 -16 J). So, to describe the interaction of matter and X-rays, the energy of the quanta of which is two orders of magnitude greater than the limit established above, it is necessary to apply the laws of quantum physics, and to describe the properties of radio waves, the laws of classical electrodynamics are quite sufficient. It should be remembered that the main "testing ground" for quantum theory is the physics of the atom and the atomic nucleus.

Finishing today's lesson, I once again ask you a question: what is light? ( Student responses.)

Literature

1. Myakishev G.Ya., Bukhovtsev B.B. Physics. Grade 11: textbook. for general education institutions: basic and prof. levels. M.: Education, 2009.
2. Video encyclopedia for public education. Lennauchfilm. Video studio "Kvart". [Electronic resource] Cassette No. 2 "Thermal Radiation".
3. Tomilin A.N. In search of the beginnings: scientific-pop. edition. L.: Det. literature, 1990.
4. Quantum mechanics. Quantum electrodynamics // Encycl. sl. young physicist / Comp. V.A. Chuyanov. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1984.
5. Koltun M. World of Physics. M.: Det. literature, 1984.
6. Solopov E.F. Philosophy: textbook. allowance for students. higher textbook establishments. M.: Vlados, 2003.
7. Ilchenko V.R. Crossroads of physics, chemistry, biology: book. for students. M.: Education, 1986.
8. Katz Ts.B. Biophysics at physics lessons: book. for the teacher. Moscow: Education, 1988.

Elena Stepanovna Uvitskaya- teacher of physics of the highest qualification category, graduated from the Tula State Pedagogical Institute named after. L.N. Tolstoy in 1977 and by distribution went to the Urals, to the small industrial town of Lysva, where she still works. Honorary Worker of General Education of the Russian Federation, winner all-Russian competition teachers of physics and mathematics (Dynasty Foundation). Graduates have been successfully passing the Unified State Examination for many years and enter universities in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Perm. Once, after reading about the Emerald Tablet, I was amazed at today's demand for the idea of ​​the legendary Hermes: every thing, object, process in our Universe bears the features of each other and a single whole. Since then, he has paid great attention to interdisciplinary connections and analogies: physics and biology, physics and mathematics, physics and literature, and now physics and English language. Engaged in scientific work with students, especially in primary school: Where does electricity live? Why is ordinary water so unusual? what is it, the mysterious world of stars? There are two sons in the family, both graduated from the Perm State Technical University. The junior is an engineer, the senior is a karate-do teacher, has a black belt, second dan, multiple champion of Russia, participant in the world championship in Japan. The success of the teacher would not have been possible without the help of her husband, an electrical engineer by education: the development and implementation of experiments, the creation of new devices, and just support and advice that help in various life situations.

All applications are given in . - Ed.

The role of Maxwell's theory was best expressed by the famous physicist Robert Feynman: “In the history of mankind (if you look at it, say, in 10,000 years), the most significant event of the 19th century will undoubtedly be Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. Against the backdrop of this important scientific discovery Civil War in America in the same decade will look like a small provincial incident.

Planck hesitated for a long time on what to stop his life choice - in the humanities or in physics. All Planck's works are distinguished by grace and beauty. A. Einstein wrote about them: "When studying his works, one gets the impression that the requirement of artistry is one of the main springs of his work."

Just today I thought that the observer effect theoretically proves the possibility of realizing on the physical plane not only your plans and projects, but also the body of light and, in general, the possibility of transition from an energy state to a material state and vice versa. It turns out that in your development you can reach the level of consciousness, which allows you to exist either in the form of matter or in the form of a wave at will. TO for example, p the refiguration of Jesus and his appearance to the disciples after the crucifixion in a material body fit well into this theory.
Below is a light reminder that there is an "observer effect", and an excerpt from the book, transferring the principle of the priority of consciousness from quantum physics to the manifested plane.
"Your life is where your attention is."

It is this postulate that has been experimentally proven by physicists in many laboratories around the world, no matter how strange it may sound.Perhaps now it sounds unusual, but quantum physics began to prove the truth of hoary antiquity: "Your life is where your attention is." In particular, that a person with his attention influences the surrounding material world, predetermines the reality that he perceives.

From its very inception, quantum physics began to radically change the idea of ​​the microcosm and of man, starting from the second half of the 19th century, with William Hamilton's statement about the wave-like nature of light, and continuing with the advanced discoveries of modern scientists. Quantum physics already has a lot of evidence that the microworld “lives” according to completely different laws of physics, that the properties of nanoparticles differ from the world familiar to man, that elementary particles interact with it in a special way.
In the middle of the 20th century, Klaus Jenson, during experiments, obtained an interesting result: during physical experiments subatomic particles and photons accurately responded to human attention, resulting in a different end result. That is, nanoparticles reacted to what the researchers focused their attention on at that moment. Each time this experiment, which has already become a classic, surprises scientists. It has been repeated many times in many laboratories around the world, and each time the results of this experiment are identical, which confirms its scientific value and reliability.
So, for this experiment, a light source and a screen (a plate impervious to photons) are prepared, which has two slits. The device, which is the light source, “shoots” photons with single pulses.

Photo 1.
A special screen with two slits was placed in front of the special photographic paper. As expected, two vertical stripes appeared on the photographic paper - traces of photons that illuminated the paper as they passed through these slits. Naturally, the course of the experiment was monitored.

Photo 2.
When the researcher turned on the device, and he himself went away for a while, returning to the laboratory, he was incredibly surprised: photons left a completely different image on photographic paper - instead of two vertical stripes - a lot.

Photo 3.
How could this happen? The traces left on the paper were characteristic of a wave that passed through the cracks. In other words, an interference pattern was observed.

Photo 4.
A simple experiment with photons showed that upon observation (in the presence of a detector or observer) the wave passes into the state of a particle and behaves like a particle, but, in the absence of an observer, behaves like a wave. It turned out that if you do not conduct observations in this experiment, photographic paper shows traces of waves, that is, an interference pattern is visible. Such a physical phenomenon began to be called the “Effect of the Observer”.

The particle experiment described above also applies to the question "Is there a God?". Because if, with the vigilant attention of the Observer, that which has a wave nature can be in a state of matter, reacting and changing its properties, then who carefully observes the entire Universe? Who keeps all matter in a stable state with their attention? As soon as a person in his perception has an assumption that he can live in a qualitatively different world (for example, in the world of God), only then does he, the person, begin to change his vector of development in this side, and the chances of surviving this experience increase many times over. That is, it is enough just to admit the possibility of such a reality for oneself. Therefore, as soon as a person accepts the possibility of acquiring such an experience, he actually begins to acquire it. This is also confirmed in the AllatRa book by Anastasia Novykh:

“Everything depends on the Observer himself: if a person perceives himself as a particle (a material object living according to the laws of the material world), he will see and perceive the world of matter; if a person perceives himself as a wave (sensory experiences, an expanded state of consciousness), then he perceives the world of God and begins to understand it, to live it.
In the experiment described above, the observer inevitably influences the course and results of the experiment. That is, a very important principle emerges: it is impossible to observe the system, measure and analyze it without interacting with it. Where there is interaction, there is a change in properties.
The sages say that God is everywhere. Do not observations of nanoparticles confirm this statement? Are these experiments a confirmation that the entire material Universe interacts with Him in the same way as, for example, the Observer interacts with photons? Doesn't this experience show that everything where the Observer's attention is directed is permeated by him? Indeed, from the point of view of quantum physics and the principle of the "Effect of the Observer", this is inevitable, since during the interaction the quantum system loses its original features, changing under the influence of more major system. That is, both systems mutually exchanging in the energy-information plan, modify each other.

If we develop this question further, then it turns out that the Observer predetermines the reality in which he then lives. This manifests itself as a consequence of his choice. In quantum physics, there is the concept of a plurality of realities, when thousands of possible realities are in front of the Observer until he makes his final choice, thereby choosing only one of the realities. And when he chooses his own reality for himself, he focuses on it, and it manifests itself for him (or he for her?).
And again, taking into account the fact that a person lives in the reality that he himself supports with his attention, then we come to the same question: if all matter in the Universe is kept by attention, then Who keeps the Universe itself with his attention? Doesn't this postulate prove the existence of God, the One Who can contemplate the whole picture?

Does this not indicate that our mind is directly involved in the work of the material world? Wolfgang Pauli, one of the founders of quantum mechanics, once said: The laws of physics and consciousness must be seen as complementary". It is safe to say that Mr. Pauli was right. This is already very close to world recognition: the material world is an illusory reflection of our mind, and what we see with our eyes is not really reality. Then what is reality? Where is it located and how can you find it?
More and more, scientists are inclined to believe that human thinking in the same way is subject to the processes of the notorious quantum effects. To live in an illusion drawn by the mind, or to discover reality for oneself - this is for everyone to choose for themselves. We can only recommend that you familiarize yourself with the AllatRa book, which was quoted above. This book not only scientifically proves the existence of God, but also gives detailed explanations of all existing realities, measurements, and even reveals the structure of the human energy structure. You can download this book completely free of charge from our website by clicking on the quote below, or by going to the appropriate section of the site.

The emergence and development of quantum theory led to a change in classical ideas about the structure of matter, motion, causality, space, time, the nature of cognition, etc., which contributed to a radical transformation of the picture of the world. The classical understanding of a material particle was characterized by its sharp separation from environment, possession of its own movement and location in space. In quantum theory, a particle began to be represented as a functional part of the system in which it is included, which does not have both coordinates and momentum. In the classical theory, motion was considered as the transfer of a particle, which remains identical to itself, along a certain trajectory. The dual nature of the motion of the particle necessitated the rejection of such a representation of the motion. Classical (dynamic) determinism has given way to probabilistic (statistical) determinism. If earlier the whole was understood as the sum of its constituent parts, then quantum theory revealed the dependence of the properties of a particle on the system in which it is included. The classical understanding of the cognitive process was associated with the knowledge of a material object as existing in itself. Quantum theory has demonstrated the dependence of knowledge about an object on research procedures. If the classical theory claimed to be complete, then the quantum theory developed from the very beginning as incomplete, based on a number of hypotheses, the meaning of which was far from clear at first, and therefore its main provisions received different interpretations, different interpretations.
Disagreements emerged primarily about the physical meaning of the duality of microparticles. De Broglie first put forward the concept of a pilot wave, according to which a wave and a particle coexist, the wave leads the particle. A real material formation that retains its stability is a particle, since it is precisely it that has energy and momentum. The wave carrying the particle controls the nature of the particle's motion. The amplitude of the wave at each point in space determines the probability of particle localization near this point. Schrödinger essentially solves the problem of the duality of a particle by removing it. For him, the particle acts as a purely wave formation. In other words, the particle is the place of the wave, in which highest energy waves. The interpretations of de Broglie and Schrödinger were essentially attempts to create visual models in the spirit of classical physics. However, this turned out to be impossible.
Heisenberg proposed an interpretation of quantum theory, proceeding (as shown earlier) from the fact that physics should use only concepts and quantities based on measurements. Heisenberg therefore abandoned the visual representation of the motion of an electron in an atom. Macro devices cannot give a description of the motion of a particle with simultaneous fixation of the momentum and coordinates (i.e. in the classical sense) due to the fundamentally incomplete controllability of the interaction of the device with the particle - due to the uncertainty relation, the measurement of the momentum does not make it possible to determine the coordinates and vice versa. In other words, due to the fundamental inaccuracy of measurements, the predictions of the theory can only be of a probabilistic nature, and the probability is a consequence of the fundamental incompleteness of information about the motion of a particle. This circumstance led to the conclusion about the collapse of the principle of causality in the classical sense, which assumed the prediction of exact values ​​of momentum and position. In the framework of quantum theory, therefore, we are not talking about errors in observation or experiment, but about a fundamental lack of knowledge, which is expressed using a probability function.
Heisenberg's interpretation of quantum theory was developed by Bohr and was called the Copenhagen interpretation. Within the framework of this interpretation, the main provision of quantum theory is the principle of complementarity, which means the requirement to apply for obtaining in the process of cognition complete picture of the object under study are mutually exclusive classes of concepts, instruments and research procedures that are used in their specific conditions and complement each other. This principle is reminiscent of the Heisenberg uncertainty relation. If we are talking about the definition of momentum and coordinate as mutually exclusive and complementary research procedures, then there are grounds for identifying these principles. However, the meaning of the complementarity principle is wider than the uncertainty relations. In order to explain the stability of the atom, Bohr combined classical and quantum ideas about the motion of an electron in one model. The principle of complementarity, thus, allowed classical representations to be supplemented with quantum ones. Having revealed the opposite of the wave and corpuscular properties of light and not finding their unity, Bohr leaned towards the idea of ​​two, equivalent to each other, methods of description - wave and corpuscular - with their subsequent combination. So it is more accurate to say that the principle of complementarity is the development of the uncertainty relation, expressing the relationship of coordinate and momentum.
A number of scientists have interpreted the violation of the principle of classical determinism within the framework of quantum theory in favor of indeternism. In fact, here the principle of determinism changed its form. In the framework of classical physics, if at the initial moment of time the positions and state of motion of the elements of the system are known, it is possible to completely predict its position at any future moment of time. All macroscopic systems were subject to this principle. Even in those cases when it was necessary to introduce probabilities, it was always assumed that all elementary processes are strictly deterministic and that only their big number and disorderly behavior forces one to turn to statistical methods. In quantum theory, the situation is fundamentally different. To implement the principles of deternization, here it is necessary to know the coordinates and momenta, and this is prohibited by the uncertainty relation. The use of probability here has a different meaning compared to statistical mechanics: if in statistical mechanics probabilities were used to describe large-scale phenomena, then in quantum theory, probabilities, on the contrary, are introduced to describe the elementary processes themselves. All this means that in the world of large-scale bodies the dynamic principle of causality operates, and in the microcosm - the probabilistic principle of causality.
The Copenhagen interpretation presupposes, on the one hand, the description of experiments in terms of classical physics, and, on the other hand, the recognition of these concepts as inaccurately corresponding to the actual state of affairs. It is this inconsistency that determines the likelihood of quantum theory. The concepts of classical physics are an important constituent part natural language. If we do not use these concepts to describe our experiments, we will not be able to understand each other.
The ideal of classical physics is the complete objectivity of knowledge. But in cognition we use instruments, and thus, as Heinzerberg says, a subjective element is introduced into the description of atomic processes, since the instrument is created by the observer. "We must remember that what we observe is not nature itself, but nature which appears as it is brought to light by our way of asking questions. Scientific work in physics consists in asking questions about nature on the language we use and try to get an answer in an experiment carried out with the means at our disposal.This brings to mind Bohr's words about quantum theory: if we are looking for harmony in life, we must never forget that in the game of life we ​​are both spectators and participants. It is clear that in our scientific attitude to nature, our own activity becomes important where we have to deal with areas of nature that can only be penetrated through the most important technical means "
Classical representations of space and time also proved impossible to use to describe atomic phenomena. Here is what another creator of quantum theory wrote about this: “The existence of an action quantum revealed a completely unforeseen connection between geometry and dynamics: it turns out that the possibility of localizing physical processes in geometric space depends on their dynamic state. The general theory of relativity has already taught us to consider the local properties of space -time depending on the distribution of matter in the universe.However, the existence of quanta requires a much deeper transformation and no longer allows us to represent the movement of a physical object along a certain line in space-time (the world line).Now it is impossible to determine the state of motion, based on the curve depicting successive positions of an object in space over time. Now we need to consider the dynamic state not as a consequence of spatio-temporal localization, but as an independent and additional aspect of physical reality"
Discussions on the problem of interpretation of quantum theory have exposed the question of the very status of quantum theory - whether it is a complete theory of the motion of a microparticle. The question was first formulated in this way by Einstein. His position was expressed in the concept of hidden parameters. Einstein proceeded from the understanding of quantum theory as a statistical theory that describes the patterns related to the behavior of not a single particle, but their ensemble. Each particle is always strictly localized and simultaneously has certain values ​​of momentum and position. The uncertainty relation does not reflect the real structure of reality at the level of microprocesses, but the incompleteness of quantum theory - it’s just that at its level we are not able to simultaneously measure momentum and coordinate, although they actually exist, but as hidden parameters (hidden within the framework of quantum theory). Einstein considered the description of the state of a particle with the help of the wave function to be incomplete, and therefore he presented the quantum theory as an incomplete theory of the motion of a microparticle.
Bohr took the opposite position in this discussion, proceeding from the recognition of the objective uncertainty of the dynamic parameters of a microparticle as the reason for the statistical nature of quantum theory. In his opinion, Einstein's denial of the existence of objectively uncertain quantities leaves unexplained the wave features inherent in a microparticle. Bohr considered it impossible to return to the classical concepts of the motion of a microparticle.
In the 50s. In the 20th century, D.Bohm returned to de Broglie's concept of a wave-pilot, presenting a psi-wave as a real field associated with a particle. Supporters of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory and even some of its opponents did not support Bohm's position, however, it contributed to a more in-depth study of de Broglie's concept: the particle began to be considered as a special formation that arises and moves in the psi-field, but retains its individuality. The works of P.Vigier, L.Yanoshi, who developed this concept, were evaluated by many physicists as too "classical".
In domestic philosophical literature Soviet period the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory has been criticized for "adherence to positivist attitudes" in the interpretation of the process of cognition. However, a number of authors defended the validity of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory. The replacement of the classical ideal of scientific cognition with a non-classical one was accompanied by the understanding that the observer, trying to build a picture of an object, cannot be distracted from the measurement procedure, i.e. the researcher is unable to measure the parameters of the object under study as they were before the measurement procedure. W. Heisenberg, E. Schrödinger and P. Dirac put the principle of uncertainty at the basis of quantum theory, in which particles no longer had definite and mutually independent momentum and coordinates. Quantum theory thus introduced an element of unpredictability and randomness into science. And although Einstein could not agree with this, quantum mechanics was consistent with experiment, and therefore became the basis of many areas of knowledge.

"Those who were not shocked at the first acquaintance with quantum theory, most likely, simply did not understand anything." Niels Bohr

The premise of quantum theory is so mind-boggling that it is more like science fiction.

A particle of the microworld can be in two or more places at the same time!

(One of the most recent experiments showed that one of these particles can be in 3000 places at the same time!)

One and the same "object" can be both a localized particle and an energy wave propagating in space.

Einstein postulated that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. But quantum physics has proven that subatomic particles can exchange information instantly - being at any distance from each other.

Classical physics was deterministic: given initial conditions like the location and speed of an object, we can calculate where it will move. Quantum physics is probabilistic: we can never say with absolute certainty how the object under study will behave.

Classical physics was mechanistic. It is based on the premise that only by knowing the individual parts of an object can we ultimately understand what it is.

Quantum physics is holistic: it paints a picture of the universe as a single whole, the parts of which are interconnected and influence each other.

And, perhaps most importantly, quantum physics has destroyed the idea of ​​a fundamental difference between the subject or object, the observer and the observed - and yet it dominated the minds of scientists for 400 years!

In quantum physics, the observer influences the observed object. There are no isolated observers of the mechanical Universe - everything takes part in its existence.

SHOCK #1 - EMPTY SPACE

One of the first cracks in the solid structure of Newtonian physics was made by the following discovery: atoms are those solid building blocks of the physical universe! - consist mainly of empty space. How empty? If we increase the nucleus of a hydrogen atom to the size of a basketball, then the only electron revolving around it will be at a distance of thirty kilometers, and there will be nothing between the nucleus and the electron. So looking around, remember: reality is the smallest dots of matter, surrounded by emptiness.

However, not quite so. This supposed "void" is not actually empty: it contains a colossal amount of incredibly powerful energy. we know that energy becomes denser as it moves to a lower level of matter (for example, nuclear power a million times more powerful than chemical). Scientists now say that there is more energy in one cubic centimeter of empty space than in all the matter in the known universe. Although scientists have not been able to measure it, they are seeing the results of this sea of ​​energy.

SHOCK #2 - PARTICLE, WAVE OR WAVE PARTICLE?

Not only is the atom almost entirely composed of "space" - when scientists examined it more deeply, they found that the subatomic (components of the atom) particles are also not solid. And they seem to have a dual nature. Depending on how we observe them, they can behave either like solid micro-objects or like waves.

Particles are separate solid objects that occupy a certain position in space. And the waves do not have a "body", they are not localized and propagate in space.

As a wave, an electron or photon (a particle of light) does not have a precise location, but exists as a "field of probabilities". In the particle state, the probability field "collapses" (collapses) into a solid object. Its coordinates in four-dimensional space-time can already be determined.

This is surprising, but the state of a particle (a wave or a solid object) is set by the acts of observation and measurement. Unmeasured and unobservable electrons behave like waves. As soon as we subject them to observation during the experiment, they "collapse" into solid particles and can be fixed in space.

But how can something be both a solid particle and a fluid wave at the same time? Perhaps the paradox will be resolved if we remember what was said recently: particles behave like waves or like solid objects. But the concepts of "wave" and "particle" are just analogies taken from our everyday world. The concept of a wave was introduced into quantum theory by Erwin Schrödinger. He is the author of the famous "wave equation", which mathematically substantiates the existence of wave properties in a solid particle before the act of observation. Some physicists - in an attempt to explain what they have never encountered and cannot fully understand - call subatomic particles "wave particles".

SHOCK #3 - QUANTUM LEAPS AND PROBABILITY

While studying the atom, scientists have found that when electrons move from orbit to orbit as they orbit the nucleus, they do not move through space like ordinary objects. No, they cover the distance instantly. That is, they disappear in one place and appear in another. This phenomenon has been called a quantum leap.

Moreover, scientists realized that they could not determine exactly where exactly in the new orbit the disappeared electron would appear or at what moment it would make a jump. The most they could do was calculate the probability (based on the Schrödinger wave equation) of the new location of the electron.

“Reality, as we experience it, is created at every moment in time from the totality of countless possibilities,” says Dr. Satinover. - But real secret- in the fact that there is nothing in the physical Universe that would determine which particular possibility from this totality will be realized. There is no process that sets this up."

Thus, quantum jumps are the only truly random events in the universe.

SHOCK #4 - THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

In classical physics, all parameters of an object, including its spatial coordinates and speed, can be measured with an accuracy limited only by the capabilities of experimental technologies. But at the quantum level, whenever you determine one quantitative characteristic of an object, such as speed, you cannot get exact values ​​of its other parameters, such as coordinates. In other words: if you know how fast an object is moving, you cannot know where it is. Conversely, if you know where it is, you cannot know how fast it is moving.

No matter how sophisticated the experimenters are, no matter how advanced measurement technologies they use, they fail to look behind this veil.

Werner Heisenberg, one of the pioneers of quantum physics, formulated the uncertainty principle. Its essence is as follows: no matter how you fight, it is impossible to simultaneously obtain the exact values ​​of the coordinates and speed of a quantum object. The more accurate we achieve in the measurement of one parameter, the more uncertain the other becomes.

SHOCK #5 - NONLOCALITY, EPR PARADOX AND BELL'S THEOREM

Albert Einstein did not like quantum physics. Assessing the probabilistic nature of subatomic processes outlined in quantum physics, he said: "God does not play dice with the Universe." But Niels Bohr answered him: “Stop teaching God what to do!”

In 1935, Einstein and his colleagues Podolsky and Rosen (EPR) attempted to defeat quantum theory. Scientists based on the provisions of quantum mechanics conducted a thought experiment and came to a paradoxical conclusion. (He was supposed to show the inferiority of quantum theory). This is the gist of their thinking. If we have two particles that appeared at the same time, then this means that they are interconnected or are in a state of superposition. Let's send them to different ends of the universe. Then we change the state of one of the particles. Then, according to quantum theory, another particle instantly comes to the same state. Instantly! On the other side of the universe!

Such an idea was so ridiculous that Einstein sarcastically referred to it as "supernatural action at a distance." According to his theory of relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. And in the EPR experiment, it turned out that the rate of information exchange between particles is infinite! In addition, the very idea that an electron could "track" the state of another electron on the opposite side of the universe was completely contrary to generally accepted ideas about reality, and indeed to common sense.

But in 1964, the Irish theoretical physicist John Bell formulated and proved a theorem from which it followed: “ridiculous” conclusions from thought experiment EPR - true!

Particles are intimately connected on a certain level that transcends time and space. Therefore, they are able to instantly exchange information.

The notion that any object in the Universe is local - i.e. exists in any one place (point) of space - not true. Everything in this world is non-local.

Nevertheless, this phenomenon is a valid law of the universe. Schrödinger said that the relationship between objects is not the only interesting aspect of quantum theory, but the most important one. In 1975, theoretical physicist Henry Stapp called Bell's theorem "the most significant discovery of science". Note that he was talking about science, not just physics.

(The article was prepared based on the materials of the book by W. Arntz, B. Chase, M. Vicente "Rabbit Hole, or what do we know about ourselves and the Universe?", Chapter "Quantum Physics".)