Encyclopedia of symbols. Emblems of modern religions

Baha'i Faith - one of the youngreligionsrevelations (that is, religions that have their ownscriptures). Its founder Bahá'u'lláh (- ) is revered by Bahá'ís as the last of a series of "Epiphanies", which, in addition to Bahá'u'lláh, includesAbraham, Moses, Buddha, Zarathustra, Krishna, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, Womanand other similar figures.

Baha'i Faith ( Arab. « Bach" بهاء - "Glory") arose in the middle19th centuryand currently unites over 5 million followers,in 188 countries and 45 dependent territories. These are representatives of 2112 peoples, nationalities and tribes, people from all social strata and cultures. Portions of the sacred writings of the Baha'i Faith have been translated into more than 800 languages. .

The main themes of the Bahá'í teachings are the unity of God, the unity of religions and the unity of humanity. Recalling similar teachings of earlier Manifestations, Bahá'u'lláh declares that there is only one religion - "the unchangeable Faith of God, eternal in the past, eternal in the future.", similar to how inKoran « Islam"is called any religion of revelation.

The most common symbols associated with the Bahá'í Faith are the nine-pointed star (nine is a sacred number), the symbol of the Greatest Name, and the Ringstone symbol.

Buddhism symbol -Dharmachakraor the wheel of the law. The center of the wheel, the hub, symbolizes a luminous point of consciousness, emitting spiritual light. In its projection one can easily discern the yin-yang symbol - the unity of the feminine and masculine principles, eight spokes - symbolize the essence of Buddhist teaching, which consists in following the eight “noble principles”:

1. right faith
2. the right values
3. correct speech
4. correct behavior
5. proper achievement of means of living,
6. the right aspirations,
7. correct assessment of one’s actions and perception of the world by the senses,
8. correct meditation (concentrating on the internal state of consciousness).

In some images, two gazelles stand on the sides of the Wheel as a symbol of Buddhist preaching. This is due to the legend that these two animals also listened to the first sermon of the Buddha.

Image bhavacakras- another visually similar well-known wheel symbolsamsara (Skt.. “wandering”, “circulation”) demonstrates the endless cycle of existence, characterized by birth, death and rebirth in various locations.

doctrine of Taoor "the way of things", a Chinese traditional teaching including elementsreligion And philosophy.

Symbol Yin and Yang. Yang - white, masculine, emphasis on the external; Yin - black, feminine, emphasis on the inner. IN“Book of Changes” (“I Ching”) yang and yin served to express light and dark, hard and soft, masculine and feminine principles in nature. In developmentChinese yang and yin philosophy increasingly symbolized the interaction of extreme opposites: light and dark, day and night, sun and moon, sky and earth, heat and cold, positive and negative, even and odd, etc. Exclusivelyabstractthe meaning of yin-yang was obtained in speculative schemesneo-Confucianism, especially in the doctrine of “li” (whale.禮 ) - absolute law. The concept of the interaction of polar forces Yin Yang , which are considered as the main cosmic forces of movement, as the root causes of constant variability in nature, constitute the main content of mostdialecticalschemes of Chinese philosophers. Doctrine ofdualism yin-yang forces - an indispensable element of dialectical constructions in Chinese philosophy. In the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e. in ancient China there was a school of philosophyyin yang jia. Ideas about Yin Yang have also found various applications in the development of the theoretical foundations of Chinese medicine, chemistry, music, etc.

One primordial mattertai chigives rise to two opposing substances - yang and yin which are one and indivisible. Initially, “yin” meant “northern, shadowy”, and “yang” meant “southern, sunny slope of the mountain.” Later yin perceived as negative, cold, dark and feminine, and yang - as a positive, bright, warm and masculine principle.

One of the oldest religions, originating in the revelation of the prophet. The basis of the teachings of Zarathushtra is a person’s free moral choice of good thoughts, good words and good deeds. In ancient times and the early Middle Ages, Zoroastrianism was widespread mainly in the territoryGreater Iran. By now, Zoroastrianism has been largely supplantedIslam, small communities have survived inIran And India.

Symbol of Zoroastrianism -faravahar - winged discWith top part human body. Means Divine Blessing. According to one version - Tsar's Glory, Shining Glory. Also used inAncient Egypt, Mesopotamiaand among other peoples of the East. DepictsFravashi, similarity guardian angelin Abrahamic religions. Initially it represented a “winged sun” (a symbol of power and divine origin), to which a human image was later added.

In modern Zoroastrianism, the Faravahar is conceptualized as a guide of the human soul on its life path.

The symbol of Hinduism is the quintessence of the word« Ohm" or " Aum" is the universal name of God, the three letter signs of which personify the three main gods and the sphere of their action - Creation, Maintenance and Destruction, and also identify three states of consciousness - awakening, meditative immersion and deep sleep.

The symbol of Islam is the crescent andfive pointed star. There is a claim that the crescent moon is associated with the hijra of the Messenger of Allah, when he secretly left Mecca and went to Medina. According to them, that night there was supposedly a crescent moon in the sky. According to other versions, the crescent symbolizes the commitment of Muslims lunar calendar, and the five-pointed star represents the five pillars of Islam or the five daily prayers. The symbols of the crescent and star were known to mankind several thousand years before the Prophet Muhammad. It is difficult to trace their origin exactly. But most experts agree that these ancient symbols of the heavenly bodies were revered by the ancient peoples of Central Asia and Siberia, who worshiped the sun, moon and sky.

One of the oldest complex mystical symbols -pentagram- a regular non-convex pentagon, it is also a regular stellated pentagon, or a regular pentagonal star. The first mention of the pentagram dates back to Ancient Greece. Translated from Greek, “pentagram” literally means five lines. The pentagram was the hallmark of the Pythagorean school (circa 580-500 BC). They believed that this beautiful polygon had many mystical properties. For example, the number of rays of this star was represented by the Pythagoreans as the number of love: 5 = 2 + 3; 2 is the first feminine number, 3 is the first masculine number. That is why the pentagram was a symbol of life and health; it was assigned the ability to protect a person from evil spirits. The pentagram was considered protection against evil and witchcraft. In the Middle Ages, it was painted in front of the entrance to the house and on the doors in order to ward off evil. The Pentagon (pentagon) is an amulet of health, a symbol of eternity and perfection, a magical remedy in conspiracies and some rituals. A regular pentagon in the form of a star served as the emblem of many gods: the Egyptian Thoth, the Aztec Quetzalcoatl, the Roman Mercury, the Celtic Gawain... This sign was a totem American Indians. The Greeks used it as a sign of the cross, the Jews - as a sign of prosperity, the legendary key of Solomon. Solomon's army had shields with the image of a yellow six-pointed star. For Christians, it symbolized the five wounds of Jesus, and for the Japanese it served as a sign of high status in society. Apparently, the pentagram originally appeared four thousand years ago in Mesopotamia, probably as an astronomical diagram of the movement of the planet Venus. It became the Sumerian and Egyptian star sign. This figure primarily denotes a person: the top point is the head, the other four are the limbs. It is sometimes seen as a depiction of the five senses. Light magicians, in order to act on spirits, used the Pentagram with the head up, and black magicians drew the Pentagram with the head down. Faust drew a pentagram so that Mephistopheles could not cross the threshold of his house. For the Pythagoreans, a pentagram inscribed in a circle meant the silence of the initiate. The five ends of the pentagram symbolized the five years of silence and study that preceded initiation. IN Lately the true role of the pentagram began to be forgotten, although previously it served as a symbol of protection even among Christians. Now it is used by some “forgotten” religions (which are not occult), based on magic and the veneration of nature.

The Sikh symbol is called "khanda» . It is composed of three ceremonial kirpan daggers gathered together at the hilt and a steel kara bracelet located behind the middle dagger.

At first, the sign of Christianity was the image of a fish. Fish in Old Greek - (“ichthys (ichthyus)”), which corresponds to the abbreviation of the Christian postulate “Ἰ ησο ῦ ς Χριστός, Θεο ῦ Υ ἱ ός, Σωτήρ" (ΙΧΘΥΣ) - "Jesus Christ - God's Son the Savior."

Orthodox cross. The hands of the Savior Jesus Christ were nailed to a large horizontal crossbar. The upper small horizontal crossbar signifies the tablet on which was inscribed “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.” The oblique crossbar means two crucified next to Christ, where the end of the crossbar pointing upward means the forgiven thief who went to heaven, and the end of the crossbar pointing down means the other nailed one who went to hell. According to another version, the oblique crossbar shows the foot rest of the condemned man in perspective, which did not allow the crucified person to die immediately and was used to increase the execution time.

"Form crossin the form of two beams originated in the ancientChaldeaand was used there as well as in neighboring countries, includingEgypt, as a symbol of the god Tammuz (in the form of the mystical Tau, the first letter of his name). By the middle of the 3rd century AD. e. churches have either abandoned or distorted some of the teachings of the Christian faith. The churches of apostate Christianity, in order to strengthen their position, accepted pagans into their faith without spiritual regeneration and allowed them to retain pagan signs and symbols. Thus the Tau, or T, in its most common form with the crossbar lowered, was adopted to signify the cross of Christ."

Symbols of major religions
About the symbol. A symbol is a sign that visually expresses the supersensible content of an object. The expressive and pictorial moments in a symbol are so merged that it is almost impossible to separate them by consciousness and separately comprehend them unambiguously by the mind. Symbolism is sometimes defined as the art of thinking in visual images and expressing hidden essences in the material of transformed external sensory perceptions. True, the set of symbols that meet such a task should not include the class of ordinary conventional symbols, for example, mathematical ones, but even among the latter there are signs that are closely connected internally with the designated realities.
Each religion has its own distinctive symbols for the visible embodiment of fundamental ideas and doctrines. By mastering the fundamental symbols of a particular religion, we come closer to understanding its basic content. At the same time, in any religious symbol something is revealed that is inaccessible to an unambiguous rational interpretation: a secret meaning, ambiguity, esotericism, ambivalence. Therefore, it is impossible to exhaustively explain any sacred symbol.
Symbolism of the cross: Christianity. The symbol of the cross is found in all cultures, but it acquired particular significance in Christianity, where it is associated with the image of the great sacrifice of Jesus Christ. It is necessary to distinguish between the symbolism of the cross, common to all religions, and the cross as a Christian symbol of the flour of the cross. In general, the cross denotes the union of opposites: spiritual and material, heavenly and earthly, otherworldly and this-worldly world, invisible and visible church. Often the vertical post of the cross symbolizes the axis of the world, and the transverse crossbar symbolizes the horizon. In medieval allegory, the cross was sometimes represented in the form of a letter, like a tree, and this image was supplemented with outlines of twigs, branches, and thorns. Placed at the mystical center of the cosmos, the cross becomes a ladder along which the soul can reach God. When the cross was depicted with seven ends, it, like the world tree, symbolized the seven heavens.

Cross shapes. The shape of the cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified has not been determined with certainty. In those days, the cross was a common instrument of execution and was quite common in the Roman provinces, but its shape was not the same. There were crosses: straight, oblique, in the shape of the letter T. Many data point to a rectangular cross to which Christ was nailed with four nails. Christians depicted the crucified Savior with a small beard, long hair, with a crown on his head and a suffering expression on his face (although in the first centuries of Christianity the face was depicted as majestic, calm, with open eyes).

In the West, a four-pointed cross has been adopted; only in some cases six-pointed and eight-pointed. The Orthodox recognize three forms equally. Old Believers consider only the eight-pointed cross to be true, and reject other forms as heresy. Among Christians, eleven- and eighteen-pointed crosses are also revered. It is believed that the symbol of the cross has a special magical power that protects against evil spirits. It can be worn on the chest over clothing or under it (pectoral cross). Pectoral crosses in Orthodoxy: a) given at baptism, metal or wood; b) encolpion, which has the shape of a four-sided box, on the outside there is a monogram of the name of Jesus Christ, and inside the box is empty; c) bishops wear crosses made of metal or enamel without emptiness inside; d) since 1794, archpriests and priests wear a silver or gilded cross with a crucifix on their chest; e) priests with academic degrees wear doctoral pectoral crosses and master's and candidate's crosses in their buttonholes.

The sign of the cross is an image of a cross by hand. This custom dates back to apostolic times. Orthodox Christians make it with three fingers, folding the thumb, index and middle fingers. Old Believers recognize double-fingering. Catholics make the sign of the cross without any formation of fingers. Three fingers in Orthodoxy were confirmed at the Councils of 1666-1667. Crossing twinning through the change of crosses worn around the neck. Men who exchange crosses are called cross brothers, and women cross sisters. Week of the Veneration of the Cross, third Sunday of Lent; it is intended for the veneration of the Cross, which at Matins is brought to the middle of the temple and placed on a lectern. In moral theology, the cross is a set of life’s hardships and sufferings that must be patiently endured without violating religion in the name of Christ.

The cult of the cross was established, probably, after the mother of Emperor Constantine Helena in 326, during a trip to Palestine, allegedly discovered in Jerusalem the very cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified. In the Roman catacombs, where many early Christian symbols are found (images of fish, etc.), signs of the cross are virtually absent among the images made before the beginning of the 4th century. Initially, baptism was not associated with the sign of the cross; In Greek and Latin, baptism (baptization) is immersion in water or washing. In this way, the baptism of Rus' prescribed by John the Baptist took place.

Temples and the robes of clergy are crowned with the cross, believers wear it on their bodies, and not a single Christian ritual can be performed without it today. The cross is called life-giving; According to the doctrine, the power of the Holy Spirit is brought down upon believers who make the sign of the cross. The Christ-bearing cross is the tree of life, it carries a non-evening light, emits mentally contemplated rays that bring salvation to believers and the blotting out of sins, crushes demons rising against people. In the cross the Lord gave the church a rod of power. Christians consider the rod of Moses to be a prototype of the cross of Christ. With the image of a cross, the prophet Moses divided and united the waters of the Red Sea, and with outstretched hands in the form of a cross he defeated the Amalekites; Patriarch Jacob blessed them by laying his hands on the children Joseph-Ephraim and Manasseh in a cross shape. Three Jewish youths, depicting the cross with their hands raised in prayer to God, were saved from death. The cross redeems all humanity; Christ's outstretched hands on the cross remind believers that He, as it were, embraced all humanity with love from the cross, gathered all peoples into a single church and compensated for the ancient fall. From an instrument of execution, the cross turned into a symbol of atonement and an object of veneration.

The four-pointed cross is complicated to a six-pointed one to symbolize the tablet with the inscription This is the King of the Jews, nailed above the head of the crucified Christ. In addition, the eight-pointed cross also has a beam for the legs. The main types of cross in Christianity: the cross of Calvary, the Greek cross and the Latin cross.

Cross of Golgotha. In the time of Jesus Christ, criminals sentenced to death on the cross were forced to carry this weapon themselves to the place of execution. Christ was executed as a criminal. He carried his heavy cross to Calvary. The path to Golgotha ​​is known as the sacrificial path of Christ. Calvary mountainous hill in the northwest of Jerusalem (now it is located in the city itself). The name Golgotha ​​(Golgotha, meaning skull) was given to this place, probably because of its resemblance to the shape of a skull or because the skulls of executed criminals were found there. According to legend christian church Adam is buried here; it turned out that the cross of Golgotha ​​with the crucified Christ rested on the skull and bones of the forefather of mankind. The death of Christ on the cross gave the cross of Calvary glory for all time; from a murder weapon, the cross became a symbol of self-sacrifice out of love for all humanity. The steps on which such a cross rises symbolize the path of Christ to Golgotha. There are three steps in total; they represent faith, hope and love. In general, the cross of Golgotha ​​is a symbol of rising from the dead and finding eternal life in the Kingdom of Jesus Christ.

Greek cross. This symbol is constructed by the perpendicular intersection of two segments of equal length. The equality of the vertical and horizontal lines indicates the harmony of the heavenly and earthly world. This type of cross symbolizes not so much the suffering of Christ, but the church of Christ in the unity of its invisible and visible sides. The head of the invisible church is Christ. He presides over the visible church, consisting of clergy and laity, priests and ordinary believers. All rites and sacraments performed in the visible church gain power through the action of the invisible church.

Latin cross. The post of this cross is much longer than the beam. The post and beam intersect so that the two horizontal arms and the top vertical portion are the same length. The lower part of the rack makes up two-thirds of the entire length. The Latin cross symbolizes primarily the suffering of the Savior. According to legend, the cross on which Christ was crucified was made of holy oak, and the crown worn on Him was made from the leaves of the same oak.

Early Christians also used other signs symbolizing Jesus Christ. One of the secret signs of the Savior is fish. The fish is a symbol of sacrifice and the connection between heaven and earth, as well as a symbol of the soul. Due to the huge number of eggs, the fish becomes a symbol of fertility, which also gives it spiritual meaning. The fish became the simplest Christian symbol based on an anagram derived from the name IHTIS, the initial letters of which stand for Jesus Christ, the Son of God the Savior. The snake on the cross is another common secret sign of early Christians. The Gnostics, in their religious practices, generally identified the snake with Jesus Christ. The snake is curved in the form of an unfinished number eight and symbolizes the ideas of infinity, wisdom, and the mutual transformation of the earthly and heavenly. T-shaped cross. The letter T here has the meaning of Theos (God). This symbol is rejected by the church as heresy.

Symbolism of the crescent and star: Islam. Islam as a whole is not inclined to symbolically designate sacred entities, strictly adhering to the commandment not to depict sacred objects. Nevertheless, Muslims still recognize several symbols, since in general it is difficult to think about anything supersensible without any reliance on symbolism. Among the recognized sacred signs are sacred calligraphy, the drawing of the sacred stone of the Kaaba, but the most common symbol is the crescent and star. The crescent and star were once the state symbol of Byzantium (354-1453). When the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, the Turks borrowed this captured symbol and turned it into a sign of their military victory. Gradually, the symbol of the crescent and star began to be associated with the achievements of Muslim culture, and then with the culture of Islam as a whole. This symbol is on the flags of Islamic states, mosques, and postage stamps.

The crescent moon, depicted by itself, is a common symbol in many cultures. For magicians, parts of the circle mean the goddess Moon, the feminine principle in general. In Indian poetry, the crescent moon is a container for storing the elixir of life, soma. In knightly poetry, this container was called the Holy Grail, sometimes combining upright and inverted sickles in a symbol. An inverted sickle is also a symbol of a woman. The crescent moon can represent water, the world of changeable forms and phenomena, the passive feminine principle. A star is, as a rule, a symbol of the spirit, a light in the darkness. The blazing star speaks of the mystical Center, the energy of the expanding Universe. The most common is the five-pointed star. In the days of Egyptian hieroglyphs, it meant ascending to the beginning. An inverted five-pointed star is a symbol of evil spirits and is used in black magic. An ordinary five-pointed star in a secular sense (as well as in the Babi religion) is a designation of a person, a symbol of humanism. The symbol of stars is associated with night, with ideas of multiplicity or disunity. In the medieval emblems of the Western world, the crescent moon together with the star is a symbolic image of paradise.

Among Muslim theologians, the most common interpretation of the symbol of the crescent and star is the following: even a partial Moon (rising crescent, wax Moon) is capable of illuminating the path of a wanderer in the sands of Arabia with soft and cool light, and the stars are a guide to movement towards his destiny. The religion of submission (Islam) associated with this symbol indicates life path to Allah. Just as the crescent moon will eventually turn into the full moon, Islam is strengthening its influence in the world and sooner or later will embrace all of humanity. The idea of ​​the future worldwide victory of Islam is the general meaning of the symbol.

The flags of Islamic states have a green field with a star and crescent on it. There is no unambiguous interpretation of the meaning of this color. Generally speaking, a symbol of any color is polysemic. In optics and psychology, green is considered an intermediate color between warm (red, orange, yellow and even sometimes white) and cold (blue, violet, sometimes black). Green is both warm and cold: it is associated with both growth and death. Green binds together black (the world of minerals) with red (blood, animal world), and also serves as an intermediary between the animal kingdom and destruction. While living, remember death! If fire is paired with red and orange, and earth with black and ocher, then green and purple colors with water.

There are also such interpretations of green: fertility of fields, sympathy, adaptability; suppression, inertia, humility, indifference of the meaning of the color of the ashes; Christian art is dominated by the meaning of green as a bridge between warm and cold colors; hope. The Egyptians depicted Osiris (the god of growth and the god of the kingdom of the dead) as green. The moon often has a green-yellow or simply green, deathly pallor.

The crescent moon in the symbol is depicted facing either the left or the right. A star can be drawn with a different number of angles. Several small stars and one large star are sometimes indicated next to the crescent. The large star indicates the seal of the prophets of Mohammad, and the small stars indicate the succession of the most important messengers of God preceding him.

Menorah and Star of David: Judaism. Menorah lamp, candelabra with seven limbs, seven-branched candlestick. This is the most important symbol of Judaism. In a common sense, a lamp is a symbol of the mind and spirit, and a burning star is associated with individualized light, a spark of God, with the soul and life of the individual. In traditional symbol theory, the septenary is seen as analogous to the spiritual principles of the seven planets or ancient mythological deities.

There are seven notes of the diatonic series, seven colors of the rainbow, seven planets, etc. Kabbalah provides some connection between mythological deities and the seven heavenly hierarchies: the Sun, the angel of light, Michael; Luna angel of hope and dreams Gabriel; Mercury angel of enlightenment Raphael; Venus angel of love Anail; Mars angel of destruction Samuel; Jupiter the ruling angel Zahariel; Saturn angel of care Orithiel. The menorah in Solomon's Temple expresses the dominance of the heavenly order based on the principle of monotheism. The seven-branched candlesticks used by the Jews signify the seven original powers of the divine. The Torah tells about the days of the creation of the world: on the first day, God created light (and today we called this day that began the week Sunday), and then continued creation for six days; on the seventh day, Saturday, God rested and commanded to honor Saturday as a day of rest for all believers. The middle light (central candle) indicates Saturday.

The seven candles may also represent the seven heavens created by God. The seven-branched candlestick was often used by magicians of Western and Central Europe during their studies and meetings. Through the Judeo-Khazar kingdom, such lamps may have penetrated various folk sects in Rus'. In the first Jewish temple of Solomon, built in 983 BC. e., there were ten golden seven-branched candlesticks, and in the second (built in 516 BC) there was only one. Burning candles symbolize the presence of God in the temple. The Jews believe that the light of the primordial temple will not go out until God Himself wishes it. The menorah is placed in the far western part of the sanctuary in front of the entrance to the Holy of Holies. There may also be two seven-branched candlesticks on the altar. During the New Testament, the menorah for early Christians became a symbol of the light of the Messiah who had come into the world.

The sign of the first Jerusalem Christians was the connection of a menorah with the sign of a fish through the Star of David. Let us remember that fish (ichthys) means Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Savior. In the catacombs, the secret meeting places of the first Christians during the first centuries, this sign is found very often. It symbolizes the unity of Jews and non-Jews in God's plan to save the world. Unity is in the Messiah Jesus. The menorah with the Star of David and the fish is a sign of the Messiah.

In general, a star with six rays denotes not only sixfold, but also sevenfold, only in this case a dot is placed in its center. In alchemy and other related magical concepts, this point in the middle represents gold or the sun in a circle of the other six metals and planets. Spirit spellcasters drew a protective ring on the ground, in the center of which they drew a hexagonal star, and instead of a point denoting the Sun, they wrote the sacred syllable OM (ОУМ, АУМ), a word that for mystics means the creative power of God, who created the entire Universe. The number six symbolizes ambivalence and balance, contains the union of two triangles (fire and water) and thus means the human soul. It corresponds to the six directions of space (two for each dimension) and the cessation of movement (Creation took six days). Hence, it is associated with challenge and effort. Six is ​​an ambiguous number: it expresses dualism: 2 x 3 or 3 x 2. According to P. D. Uspensky, six dimensions form a period, beyond which there is nothing left except a repetition of the same period, but on a different scale. The measurement period is limited at one end by a point, and at the other by the infinity of space multiplied by the infinity of time, which in ancient symbolism was depicted by two intersecting triangles or a six-pointed star. Number 666 is the sign of the beast, Satan.

The Star of David is formed by two triangle shields and marks the fulfillment of prophecies about the coming of the Messiah from the House of David. The star is the distinctive sign of the Messiah of Israel, the Savior of the world. The six-pointed star in Judaism is also interpreted as a symbol of the unity of the twelve tribes of Israel. In the ideology of Zionism, it primarily means the goal of gathering all Jews together, uniting them in single state at Mount Zion.

AUM: Hinduism. The sacred syllable AUM (OM, OUM) is a universal sign for all movements in Hinduism: it is also used by Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs. Swami Harshananda describes this symbol as follows. AUM is the sign of Brahman, the absolute of Indian philosophy, the sign of the God of the Hindus. The syllable comes from the Sanskrit root Ava, which has many meanings, AUM denotes the energy that knows everything, rules the world, protects from evil, fulfills the desires of its adherents, exposes ignorance and enlightens. This syllable is found in the Vedas, Upanishads, Gita. The letter A symbolizes the outcome, the beginning of the process, the letter U symbolizes the progressive course of the process, the letter M is the limit, the completion of the creative cycle. As Swami Vivekananda notes, when we pronounce A, the tongue is free, when pronouncing U, we compress our lips; when we say M, the sound goes from beginning to end. Thus, the complex sound AUM contains the entire phenomenon of sound pronunciation, and this phenomenon symbolizes the entire wealth of divine creation in words. AUM is the force responsible for the process of creation, development and the limits of the world; this symbol of the Creator, God.

According to the Vedas, creation is an eternally cyclical and at the same time nonlinear process. God creates the world by himself and from himself, turning out to be the material cause, the primary cause, the first creator. Before the beginning of a particular cycle of creation, God expresses Vedic words, stipulating with them different classes of beings, coordinates these words with previous cycles and produces objects. The names of things precede the things themselves. Names are made up of letters, and the letters are associated with corresponding sounds. AUM includes the entire ensemble of sounds in some filmed form; the world of things arises from the basic matrices of all sounds. Hindus believe that AUM is the name of the One and Only God. No matter how he is called and no matter how many names the peoples of the world use for God, all these different names are from the same source of sounds, namely from AUM. Therefore Hindus conclude that the syllable AUM is best name for God and that it represents all other possible names. The words mind, reason, and amen most likely come from AUM.

When spatially combining the Latin styles of the letters A, U and M, a figure is formed that has a complex symbolic meaning. The figure is formed either by four (and if the lines are mentally extended by six) triangles, or by two mutually opposite sinusoids folding into an infinity sign. These geometric variants retain the same symbolic meanings as the syllable AUM and are widely used in religious and magical practice. Alpha and Omega, i.e. the first and last letter of the Greek alphabet, symbolize the beginning and end of all things. In the New Testament of Christians, Jesus Christ is called the alpha and omega, the beginning and end of everything that exists. Alpha is shaped like two circles, a sign of the Creator God, while omega resembles a torch, that is, the fire of apocalyptic destruction.

On the frontispiece of a 12th century manuscript. Paul Orosius alpha and omega are depicted as birds and fish, i.e., the upper and lower abyss. In medieval emblems, M is the initial of the Virgin Mary and also means the millennium, or, according to Bailey, the end of the world. Among the Arians and Semites, M was always the first letter of words relating to water, the abyss and the birth in it of both male and female creatures. Letter U vessel, convergence, double radius. The letter A refers to the cone, the pyramid, the first cause. In the Revelation of St. John, alpha and omega are represented by the day bird (eagle) and the night bird (owl), referring respectively to the movement of the Sun in the sky from east to west, dawn and sunset, life and death.

In the Trinity icon, attributed to A. Rublev, the angel located in the center is inscribed in the figure AUM: the letter M is expanded into two wings of an angel, the entire figure of the angel is composed of a triangle A, the two fingers on his hand are spread apart and form the letter U. This gives reason to assume , that the central figure of the icon is the second Adam, Jesus Christ, slaying the Serpent with a spear. Many researchers point to the undoubted genetic connection of Russian culture and ancient Slavic religion with the Vedic tradition, the oldest on earth. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Hindu symbol AUM is sometimes embedded in Russian icons. The word amen, probably derived from AUM, is sometimes translated by the word truly and was often used by Christ when He spoke the most important truth. The word amen serves as one of the names of Jesus Christ, which indirectly indicates the identity of the syllable AUM and the word amen.

Wheel of Law: Buddhism. According to legend, Prince Gautama (Siddhartha, Buddha) himself drew this wheel on the ground with a shoot of rice, symbolizing with it the circles of birth and death, which obey the law of retribution, karma. The wheel of eternal cosmic law is slowly moving downwards. This movement is periodic. During critical periods, Krishna, Buddha, Christ or another Enlightened One appears in the world and gives new impetus to the movement of the law of good.

A wheel has eight spokes and without them there is no wheel. The eight spokes represent the eight paths to nirvana, that is, to the absolute goal of perfect peace and exclusion from the chain of transformations. An ordinary sinful person is on the outer part of the wheel and undergoes a rotation, but an enlightened person has the opportunity to complete the eightfold path to the motionless center of the wheel, nirvana. The eight spokes (paths) are described as: right seeing, right decision, right speaking, right conduct, using right means in life, making right efforts, filling your mind with truth and learning right concentration. A small circle consisting of three sectors is sometimes depicted around the axis of the wheel. Each sector contains a sign of the cause of pain and misfortune: evil will, ignorance and lust. These reasons are respectively symbolized by the images of a snake, a pig and a rooster.

The wheel symbol is common in all areas of human activity. Since ancient times, everything round has been attributed to peace, the sun, hope, goodness, happiness, and integrity. The mathematical symbol of zero came to Europe through the Muslims or Khazars; it is a circle outlining emptiness, nothingness. A ring with a dot in the middle represents the sun in astrology, gold in alchemy, and imperial power among the Rosicrucians. The cosmic snake, which bites its own tail, i.e. is endless, was in Indian mythology a symbol of the cycle of the Universe or time. A circle with a dot in the middle can also represent Sunday. Six points of a hexagonal star in a circle in astrology mean six planets, and the point in the middle is the Sun, which communicates its energy to all planets. The sun is an eternal symbol of illumination in the mysteries of various religions. The Taoists say: A sage is one who has reached the central point of the Wheel and remains attached to the Unchangeable Middle, remaining in inextricable union with the Source, participating in its immobility and imitating its inactive action.

Yang-yin: Taoism. The Chinese symbol for the dual distribution of forces, including the active or masculine symbol (yang principle) and the passive or feminine principle (yin), has the shape of a circle divided in two by a line resembling a sigma or snake in shape; the two parts thus formed acquire a dynamic tendency. The circle itself as a whole denotes the Tao, the absolute on which the mutable multitude rests. Tao is the all-encompassing principle that produces all things: this principle in itself is indescribable. In contrast to Tao, all phenomena occur due to the interaction of two opposite and complementary yang and yang. Yang is positive, yin is negative. Yang is symbolized by the light part of the circle, yin by the dark part. At the same time, each of the halves includes a circle cut from the middle of the opposite side. This means that yang contains the germ of yin, and yin is burdened with the germ of yang. It is also a dialectical symbol of the mutual reflection of opposites (reflection).

R. Guenon believes that yang-yang is a spiral symbol, that is, an image of the cross-section of a universal vortex, bringing together opposites and generating the eternal movement of contradictory existence. The vertical axis passing through the middle of yang-yin forms the mystical Center, where there is neither rotation nor suffering. This axis corresponds to the central zone of the Wheel of Transformation in Hindu and Buddhist symbolism, and the center or path outward from the labyrinth in Egyptian and Western symbolism. The symbol also expresses two tendencies that balance each other in the processes of change in complexity and simplification, progress and regression. The presence in each half of the circle of its other (a copy of the opposite principle) suggests that none of the elements of the world is either absolutely positive or absolutely negative: in good there is a moment of evil. and in evil there is a moment of good; Every cloud has a silver lining and vice versa.

The original meaning of the terms yang and yin is sunny and cloudy weather, or sunny and shady sides (for example, mountains, gorges). In the hexagrams of the I Ching book, a whole line symbolizes yang, and an interrupted line symbolizes yin. In the VIII centuries. BC e. the doctrine of yang and yin is complemented by the concept of qi energy, vital force, and in the 8th centuries. BC e. the concept of the five primary elements, as if the material for the action of yang and yin. If people act in accordance with Tao, then order and tranquility reign in society.

Cauldron of Fire: Zoroastrianism. Symbol of the Parsees (Parsis), professing the teachings of Zoroaster (Zaratushtra). IN modern world There are few supporters of Zoroastrianism. At the same time, this religion at one time had a significant influence on the formation of Christianity, and its symbolism is relevant to this day.

According to legend, the prophet Zoroaster, who was born in the Urals and preached in Eastern Persia, was inspired by the God of goodness, Ahura Mazda.

The Prophet taught monotheism and opposed primitive animism and blood sacrifices. The essence of his teaching is the formula of good thoughts, good words and good deeds. When Ahura Mazda revealed Himself to Zoroaster, Zoroaster asked Him to give him a symbol. God gave him the symbol of fire-light. Fire burns away all evil and does not become polluted or unclean. Since then, in the temples of the Parsis (i.e., Parsi-Zoroastrians), the sacred fire has never gone out. Visible fire in the cauldron there is only a sign of the primordial immaterial fire as the power of manifestation of any essence; Parsians worship the God-Light, but not the material fire, so it is inaccurate to call them fire worshipers. Visible fire is like the crown of an invisible king.

The temple fire cauldron is about three feet in diameter and four feet high. At the prescribed hours, five times a day, the priests put fuel into the cauldron. Offering precious sandalwood for this purpose is a special merit of the believer. The ash from the vessel is distributed to the believers, and they apply it to their foreheads. Fire is the main symbol of Ahura Mazda. Often Ahura Mazda is also depicted as an old man in a hat, with a beard and wings.

Hence the Christian idea of ​​God as Light. The symbol of the element of fire among the Chinese is a tablet made of red agate (Chan). In Egyptian hieroglyphics, fire is also associated with the symbolism of the solar flame, life and health. Heraclitus taught about fire as the beginning and end of all things, the power of transformation. Like water, fire is a symbol of transformation and rebirth, as well as an archetypal image of manifestation in itself.

Walking through fire symbolizes going beyond the limits of human capabilities. Old Russian pagans burned fires at their sanctuaries and kept an unquenchable fire in front of the idol of Perun. They burned their dead, who were transported to heaven with the flames of the funeral pyre. After the adoption of Christianity, sorcerers and heretics were burned at the stake. The symbol of fire is dual: fire is formidable and at the same time gives light, warmth, cleanses, and gives creative abilities (the spark of God).

At all times symbols of religions reflected the abstract concept of God, who is something incomprehensible to humans. The main task of numerous symbols of all world religions is the visible image of the Higher Powers with the help of allegory. They help believers realize and better understand their faith; they connect a meaningful perception of faith with an emotional one. Our whole life is surrounded by many different symbols, but the difference between religious symbols is that they have great power because they express moral values ​​and relationships of a higher order. A believer cannot do without religious symbols.

The phenomenon of paganism is a system of various religious cults based on belief in several gods. For example, before the adoption of Christianity, the Slavs revered Perun - the lord of thunder and lightning, Veles - the other world, Rod - the patron of the hearth. The main symbol of the Slavs was the pagan Kolovrat - an eight-pointed yellow swastika on a red background. Kolovrat is a sign of the sun, symbolizing the victory of the light side over the dark and life over death.

- a religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians believe in the divine origin of Jesus of Nazareth. The Gospel claims that He is God's son, who came to Earth to justify and atone for the sins of all mankind.

In the first stages of its inception, the symbol of Christianity was. This is an image of a fish. The symbol was taken from the parable of Jesus Christ about fishing, the meaning of which was that fish are unbelievers, and fishermen are Christians spreading the teachings of Christianity through the preaching of the Gospel.

The well-known Orthodox cross consists of two crossed crossbars. The hands of Jesus Christ were nailed to the horizontal crossbar. Above it is an upper, smaller crossbar, signifying a tablet nailed by order of Pontius Pilate, on which was written “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.” The slanting crossbar at the bottom symbolizes the story of two thieves crucified with Christ, where the upward end of the crossbar is reminiscent of the forgiven thief who went to heaven, and the downward end of the other one, who blasphemed God and ended up in hell.

The most common symbol of the religion of Christians in the Western world is the Latin cross, consisting of two crossbars, one of which crosses the other slightly above the middle. The cross symbolizes the crucifixion, hence its other name - the cross of the Crucifixion.

Another world religion, Islam, was founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. The main holy book of Muslims is the Koran. The very concept of “Islam” is translated as “peace and obedience to the Lord.” Muslims worship one God, Allah, and believe that the Koran was given to the Prophet Muhammad by the Archangel Gabriel. The symbol of Islam is a crescent moon and a five-pointed star. The five-pointed star represents the five pillars of Islam or the five main prayers, and the crescent moon represents adherence to the lunar calendar.

One of the oldest world religions is Buddhism, which was founded by the Indian prince Sidhartha Gautama (Shakyamuni). The symbol of the Buddhism religion is the Dharmachakra or “wheel of law.” In the center of the wheel there is a hub, symbolizing the point of consciousness. The eight spokes of the wheel express the eight principles on which the teaching is based.

The bulk of Hindu adherents live mainly in India. The sacred books of the teaching are the 4 Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, which are collections of hymns and magic spells. The religious symbol of Hinduism is the combination of the word “Om” or “Aum” - this is the universal name of the three main gods and a description of their functions: creation, maintenance and destruction. The letters also symbolize three states of consciousness - meditation, sleep and awakening. The second highly revered symbol is the swastika - in Hinduism it personifies harmony, the unity of elements and forces, as well as luck and favorable opportunities.

Judaism is the religion of the Jews, which proclaims the idea that God has recognized the Jewish people as the chosen ones. The main meaning of the doctrine is faith in one, omnipotent, immortal God. Man is connected with him through the mind and the immortal soul; communication with God is carried out through prayer. The symbol of Judaism is the six-pointed Star of David. David was God's anointed and the ruler of the Jews. The five ends of the star symbolize human desires, which must submit to the most important sixth end - the desire to submit to God in everything. Kabbalism knows the divine revelation contained in the Torah. Kabbalah tries to comprehend the Creator, his role and purpose, as well as the meaning of human existence.

K.G. Jung called the symbol a bridge “leading to all greatest achievements human spirit,” Mircea Eliade pointed out the primary role of the symbol in thinking, both for archaic and for any traditional society. A.F. Losev believed that the symbol “affirms a person in eternity.” Mysterious, and sometimes quite “understandable” and “natural” symbols are found everywhere. But symbolism is especially widely represented in religious traditions and can be traced from ancient times to the present day. What is a religious symbol, what information does it convey about a particular faith, why is it so important for religious life?

This article will discuss the religious symbolism of Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam - the last religion of monotheism. We will try to answer the questions posed, tell you about the purposes of the symbols, and touch on the history of their origin.

Hinduism

The symbol of Hinduism is the quintessence of the word “ Ohm" or " Aum" is the universal name of God, the three letter signs of which personify the three main gods and the sphere of their action - Creation, Maintenance and Destruction, and also identify three states of consciousness - awakening, meditative immersion and deep sleep.

Buddhism

Symbol of Buddhism - Dharmachakra or the wheel of the law. The center of the wheel, the hub, symbolizes the luminous point of consciousness, emitting spiritual light. In its projection one can easily discern the “yin-yang” symbol - the unity of the feminine and masculine principles, the eight spokes symbolize the essence of Buddhist teaching, which consists in following eight principles: correct faith, values, speech, behavior, achieving a means of living, aspirations, evaluation of one’s actions and perception of the world by the senses and proper meditation (concentrating on the internal state of consciousness).

Judaism

Star of David is a six-pointed star, which was traditionally depicted in its entirety, without intersections or lines (that is, not like on the flag of the modern state of Israel). Its meaning was that it reflected the five basic feelings of a person (symbolized by the five ends, except for the top), which should all be subordinate to the sixth most important feeling - aspiration and obedience to the Living God. Such an image is sometimes found even on ancient icons.

Christianity

At first, the sign of Christianity was the image of a fish. Fish in Old Greek is ἰχθύς (“ichthys (ichthyus)”), which corresponds to the abbreviation of the Christian postulate “Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ” (ΙΧΘΥΣ) - “And Jesus Christ is God's Son and Savior." Orthodox cross. According to Christian teaching, the hands of the messenger of the Almighty - Jesus (in the Koran - Isa) were nailed to a large horizontal crossbar. The upper small horizontal crossbar signifies the tablet on which was inscribed “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.” The oblique crossbar means two crucified side by side, where the end of the crossbar pointing upward means the forgiven thief, who, according to teaching, went to heaven, and the end of the crossbar pointing downwards means another nailed one, who ended up in hell. The shape of the cross in the form of two beams originated in ancient Chaldea and was used there, as well as in neighboring countries, including Egypt, as a symbol of the god Tammuz (in the form of the mystical "Tau", the first letter of his name). By the middle of the 3rd century AD. e. churches have either abandoned or distorted some of the teachings of the Christian faith. To strengthen their position, the churches of apostate Christianity accepted pagans into their faith without spiritual regeneration and allowed them to retain pagan signs and symbols. Thus the "Tau" or "T", in its most common form with the crossbar down, was adopted to signify the cross (Vine W. E., An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, London, 1962, p. 256).

Islam

Most people associate the image of a crescent moon and a five-pointed star with the religion of Islam. However, is this really so? Where and when did these symbols become Muslim? The history of the appearance of these symbols is full of legends, some of which claim that the crescent is associated with the hijra of the Messenger of Allah, when he secretly left Mecca and went to Medina. According to this version, there was a crescent moon in the sky that night. Other sources attribute the crescent symbol to Muslim adherence to the lunar calendar, and the five-pointed star in their understanding is the five pillars of Islam or the five daily prayers. If we trace the history of the origin of these symbols, they appeared several thousand years before the coming of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Even the ancient peoples of Central Asia and Siberia, who worshiped the sun, moon and sky, revered these ancient symbols. Let's try to find justification for all the above versions. As for the star, the version “the star is a symbol of the five pillars of Islam, the five daily prayers” is not valid, because In the Muslim world, not only the five-pointed star, but also the eight-pointed, seven-pointed and six-pointed ones are used as a symbol. The latter, by the way, is completely unfairly considered a symbol of Judaism. History also tells of the use of the crescent and star in antiquity to represent the Carthaginian goddess Tanit or the Greek goddess of the hunt Artemis (in the Roman version - Diana). Ancient Byzantium (which later received the name Constantinople, and after it was captured by Muslims - Istanbul) adopted the crescent as its symbol even before the advent of Christianity. There is an opinion that the crescent was chosen by the Romans for Byzantium in honor of the goddess Diana. Others say the symbol dates back to a battle in which the Romans defeated the Goths on the first day of the lunar month. Be that as it may, the symbolism of the city, which later became Muslim, was determined long before the appearance of representatives of Islam in it. As far as Islam is concerned, in the early years and centuries, the Muslim community did not have any generally accepted symbol to denote their faith or state. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), simple flags of monochromatic colors - black, green or white - were flown over Muslim caravans and armies, which were also used by later generations of Muslims to designate various military units. It is important to note that since the time of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), Muslims did not approve or accept any symbols, markings and inscriptions until the Turks, who seized power in the Caliphate, occupied Constantinople in 1453. In connection with this event, the Byzantines adopted their flag with a symbol that depicted the emblem of the city - a crescent. According to legend, the founder Ottoman Empire Osman (or Uthman) had a dream in which a crescent moon extended from one end of the earth to the other. This was perceived as a good sign, which prompted him to proclaim the crescent moon as a symbol of his dynasty. Thus, initially the crescent moon had nothing to do with the religion of monotheism, but was just a symbol of the Ottoman dynasty. Years and centuries passed, this sign was fixed in the minds of people as something that distinguishes Muslims from non-Muslims, until, finally, it finally entered into stereotypes and spread throughout the world as a symbol of Islam and its followers. The basis of Islam is the Koran and Sunnah, which do not say anything about the symbolism of Islam. Islam is perfect in every way; it does not need to be attached to any symbols. Muslims familiar with the history of the crescent moon reject it as an ancient pagan sign. After all, Islam warns against cultivating anyone or anything, and prohibits the worship of anyone other than Allah, be it people, animals, trees, heavenly bodies, etc., and rejects all pagan traditions. It should be noted that innovations are prohibited only in some areas of a Muslim’s life, such as religion, morality and Sharia. Otherwise, followers of Islam are free for comprehensive development, borrowing what is not mentioned in Islamic texts, experience, culture and traditions. Therefore, using any sign as a symbol of a particular dynasty or country, as Sultan Osman did with the crescent moon, is not prohibited if it does not contradict Sharia norms. And it is in this sense that the use of the crescent moon should be perceived - as a symbol of modern Turkey, just as the image of a palm tree and crossed sabers - as a symbol Saudi Arabia, and, for example, an oil derrick - as a symbol of Azerbaijan.

Introduction

Human life surrounded on all sides by symbols. Sometimes we don’t even think about what meaning is hidden under this or that sign, word, ritual. The purpose of this work is to analyze religion as a symbolic system. Objectives of the work: study the main types of symbols and find out what meaning they have for different cultures and religions.

The object of this research work is religious symbols, therefore the subject will be the influence and content of symbols in different religions.

A symbol is a special communication model that integrates individual consciousnesses into a single semantic space of culture. According to Goethe, everything can only be considered a symbol, behind which something else is hidden. There are the following main types of symbols: natural origin (human, natural objects and phenomena, the kingdom of flora, the world of fauna, fantastic creatures) and universal ( geometric figures, colors, numbers, objects, architectural structures, death).

Symbols acquire particular significance in religion. It should be noted that modern theories religions see it, first of all, as a symbolic model that shapes human experience - both cognitive and emotional.

In complex systems, when exchanging information, symbols, as a rule, act as intermediaries. These include: in fact general level action systems - language; in the interchange between the organism and the personality - pleasure; between culture and social system - money, power, influence, value commitments.

Symbols play a large role in human thinking and behavior. In religion they are indispensable because they represent what cannot be represented in other ways. The peculiarity of religious symbols is that they are associated with something sacred, sacred, different from everyday, profane life. In Latin, the word "sacker" has a dual meaning: "sanctified" and "cursed." In both cases, the object so characterized is different from the everyday for something a-normal.

The supporting elements of the religious-symbolic system are rituals and myths, on the basis of which concepts are developed in religion general order existence - worldview, and generally accepted attitudes and motivations, values ​​and norms - religious ethnicity.

I believe that this topic is undoubtedly relevant, since symbols still have great importance in human life. Nowadays, many people use symbols as attributes, the true deep meaning of which they rarely realize or misperceive. As humanity evolves, symbols take on more and more meanings through the development of different cultures and religions. Today, a certain symbol can represent peace and friendship, but a few years later it can be discredited or completely erased from the culture of any people. It is worth noting that for different religions the same symbol can have completely opposite meanings. A symbol is a sign that visually expresses the supersensible content of an object. The expressive and pictorial moments in a symbol are so merged that it is almost impossible to separate them by consciousness and separately comprehend them unambiguously by the mind. Symbolism is sometimes defined as the art of thinking in visual images and expressing hidden essences in the material of transformed external sensory perceptions. True, the set of symbols that meet such a task should not include the class of ordinary conventional symbols, for example, mathematical ones, but even among the latter there are signs that are closely connected internally with the designated realities.

Each religion has its own distinctive symbols for the visible embodiment of fundamental ideas and doctrines. By mastering the fundamental symbols of a particular religion, we come closer to understanding its basic content. At the same time, in any religious symbol something is revealed that is inaccessible to an unambiguous rational interpretation: a secret meaning, ambiguity, esotericism, ambivalence. Therefore, it is impossible to exhaustively explain any sacred symbol. K.G. Jung called the symbol a bridge “leading to all the greatest achievements of the human spirit,” Mircea Eliade pointed to the primary role of the symbol in thinking, both for archaic and for any traditional society. A.F. Losev believed that the symbol “affirms a person in eternity.” Mysterious, and sometimes quite “understandable” and “natural” symbols are found everywhere. But symbolism is especially widely represented in religious traditions and can be traced from ancient times to the present day. What is a religious symbol, what information does it convey about a particular faith, why is it so important for religious life? This is what we have to find out in this research work.

1. Symbol and its meaning

.1 Historical meaning of the symbol

Symbolism is of great importance in the history of art and literature. Thought and language are closely related to symbolism. According to the interpretation of the academic dictionary of the Russian language, a symbol is a sign, an image of some thing or animal to indicate the quality of an object. The concept of a symbol includes, without absorbing it, an artistic image, or an allegory, or a comparison. Many symbols have received an incredibly wide meaning, for example, the symbols of the cross, eagle, fish. The origin of symbols and the methods of their distribution are little understood scientifically. There is no doubt that some symbols arose among peoples independently; many similar symbols can be explained by common psychological and cultural reasons, for example, the symbol of the sun - in the form of a wheel, lightning - in the form of a hammer; but in many cases, cultural interaction between peoples and the transfer of symbolism through trade relations, coin circulation, and religious ideas are revealed. The historian d'Alvilla treats the cultural history of the main symbols of the ancient world in his extensive work "La migration des symboles" (1891). His work talks about common symbols, popular among different peoples - the cross (among the Persians, Chaldeans, Hindus, Chinese, Greeks - in the meaning of the symbol of the earth, the symbol of the winds, the symbol of light, truth and other ideas).

About the double-headed eagle, about the eagle tearing apart the serpent (a symbol of the victory of the sun over the clouds, in general, victory, strength), about the trident, about the hand from the sky (in Christian iconography, amulets of the Gauls, Assyrian stones), about the lotus as a symbol of deity and the universe among the Egyptians , Hindus and many other eastern peoples.

In the greatest detail, d'Alvilla speaks about the swastika (a cross with curved ends) and about various symbolic images of the tree of the universe, the tree of life. He stops at the threshold of Christian symbolism and does not touch upon the extensive literary material of antiquity at all. Medieval Christian symbolism found various expressions in architecture, in painting, in miniatures, in legends. With the greatest simplicity, Christian symbolism is expressed in the catacombs (see the works of de Rossi, Fricken, etc.). There is a lot of valuable information about Byzantine and Russian ancient church symbolism in Buslaev’s studies (“Historical Sketches”, “Facebook” Apocalypse" and others), Pokrovsky ("The Gospel in Iconography", "The Last Judgment", etc.), Kondakov ("Byzantine Art"), Stasov (on the ornamentation of manuscripts, etc.). In the history of the development of scientific research on church symbolism Buslaev’s article “Byzantine and Old Russian symbolism from manuscripts from the 15th to the end of the 16th centuries” was of great importance. Here Buslaev found out the importance of ancient illustrated manuscripts, in particular the psalter (in volume 2 of “Historical Sketches”, 198-216).

Engraving for Herodotus's book "History", Paris, 1510. In ancient times, in Ancient Greece, the symbolism of objects and phenomena began to be given great importance. Greek word ?? ???????? (??? - With, ????? - throwing, throwing; ?????????? - throw something together with several people, e.g. fishermen, nets when fishing) later came to mean among the Greeks any material sign that had a conditional secret meaning for a certain group of people, for example, for worshipers of Ceres, Cybele, Mithras. Ancient Greek history and the prophecies of ancient myth-making have always carried a symbolic and semantic load. This or that sign ( ????????) Since the times of ancient Hellas, it has also served as a distinction for corporations, workshops, and various parties - state, public or religious. The word Symbol in everyday speech replaced the more ancient word ???? (sign, banner, goal, heavenly sign). Even later in Greece ???????? called what in the West was called lagritio - a number or ticket to receive bread for free or at a reduced price from government warehouses or from generous rich people, as well as rings that signified a position (for example, the rings of Athenian judges), tickets to enter theaters, to folk games, gladiator fights, Roman tessarae (tessarae - waxed tablets on which military command words were written).

The warriors, when parting, sometimes took such a tablet, wrote or drew something on it, and then tore it in half: one part remained with one, the other with the other (tessarae hostiales). When they met, they recognized themselves as friends if, having applied one half of the board to the other, they saw that both were tightly adjacent to one another along the break line. Sometimes the word symbol meant a share of a monetary contribution to a pool for a good cause, for the purchase of something needed for an entire community, as well as the credentials of a foreign ambassador. ????????, ?????????????????? feasts or dinners for collected money were called, as well as voluntary offerings for general entertainment. The same word referred to written agreements between two neighboring Greek states regarding the course of action that should be observed in the litigation of a citizen of one of these states with a citizen of the other. In Athens such treaties were called ????? ??? ???????? and were carried out strictly if they were approved by the Athenian dicastery.

In the era of the emergence of Christianity in the world, symbols were the names of draft resolutions drawn up at community meetings. Symbols and symbolic cult also played a major role among other pagan peoples of antiquity, for example. from the Egyptians, from whom the Jews could also receive them. Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, V) asserts that Moses, using the hieroglyphic method, explained the rules of the moral law under the mysterious symbols of animals, and that he extracted the decorative decorations of the tabernacle from the same source. Almost the entire cult of the Jews had a symbolic and transformative character in relation to the coming kingdom of the Messiah. Not only the apostles, but also Jesus Christ himself (John, III, 14; Luke, XXIV, 27) refers to himself as his symbol and prototype, the copper serpent erected by Moses in the desert. The church fathers, starting with Barnabas, interpreted every detail in the Old Testament as a symbol or prototype of one or another fact of Christian history. During persecution, Christians created a special symbolic language for themselves. The symbolic images of the first centuries found and described so far relate partly to heresies (for example, Gnosticism), but mainly to the ancient Christian church. Already the Apocalypse contains a lot of symbols depicting the relationship of the primitive church to the then Roman state, and vice versa. In the second century, Christian symbols decorate not only places of religious meetings and prayer, but also private home life believers. The main evidence about the symbols on the rings and secret documents of the faithful is in the work of the theologian and writer Clement of Alexandria “Pedagogue” (Titus Flavius ​​Clement, book 3, 106). Symbolic images, images or icons were often replaced among Christians by tessarae hostiales. The lily and the rose constitute a constant attribute of the Blessed Virgin Mary in her images; Saint George always strikes the sea dragon with his spear; a halo surrounds the heads of the saints.

In the Middle Ages in Europe, the symbol became one of the general cultural principles. However, the object of cultivation primarily becomes the emblematic potential of the symbol, while its own specificity is revealed only in the creative practice of the cultural takeoff of the 13th - early 14th centuries. The situation did not change significantly until the last quarter of the 18th century: the Renaissance, Mannerism, and Baroque are rich in their symbolic artistic and religious worlds, but at the same time they do not see in the symbol anything other than a means of allegory and “heraldic” representation. Particular interest in symbolism appeared during the Renaissance, although in a more crude, literary and aesthetic manner. In particular, Dante built the system of his “Divine Comedy” on the basis of Eastern symbols. In the 15th century, they turned primarily to two Greek authors of the 2nd and 3rd centuries - Horapollo with his “Hieroglyphics” and the anonymous compiler of “Physiologus” (“Physiologist”). Inspired by the Egyptian hieroglyphic system, the key to which was lost in his time, Horapollo tried to establish its meaning based on the symbolism of the signs. In 1467, the Italian author Francesco Colonna wrote Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (published in Venice in 1499), where the symbol acquired a meaning close to its modern one. In 1505, the editor of the Column published the work of Horapollo, which in turn influenced two important authors of the same time. The first was Andrea Alciati, the author of a book (“Emblems”, 1531), which aroused interest in symbolism throughout Europe. The second was G. Valeriano, author of “Hieroglyphica” (“Hieroglyphics”, 1556).

In the second half of the 19th century, philosophizing art took over the understanding of the problem of symbol: myth came to music and literature, interpreted not as a formal shell of meaning, but as a meaning-generating element (the most indicative is R. Wagner - a practitioner and theorist). Since the 1880s, symbolism as an artistic movement and theoretical self-substantiation, absorbing both the romantic heritage and ideas of the philosophy of life, creates, in polemics with positivism, a new philosophy of symbol, claiming to be a total mythologization of not only creativity, but also the life of the creative subject. The Russian branch of symbolism of the late 19th - early 20th centuries gives abundant philosophical fruits: in the constructions of V.S. Solovyova, Vyach. I. Ivanova, P.A. Florensky, A.F. Losev's symbolism receives a systematic multivariate philosophical justification. Currents of Western thought in the 20th century present several models for understanding symbols. Growing out of neo-Kantianism, Cassirer’s “Philosophy of Symbolic Forms” makes the symbol a universal way of explaining spiritual reality. “Depth psychology” of Jung and his school, inheriting the phenomenon of the symbol, rooted in the collective unconscious, discovered by psychoanalysis, moves from Freud’s focus on exposing the symbol to its legitimization and the conscious inclusion of symbols and archetypes in the processes of self-expression and self-construction of the soul. The philosophy of language reveals the symbolic potential that allows natural language to play the role of a world-creating force. Modern philosophy continues to preserve and study the problems of symbol.

1.2 Symbol and its contents

The concept of symbol is closely related to such categories as artistic image, allegory and comparison. Appearing in Ancient Greece, the symbol originally denoted a material sign that had a secret meaning for a group of people united around some cult. For example, in late antiquity, the cross became a symbol of Christianity. In modern times, the swastika has become a symbol of fascism. From ancient Greek, a symbol (Greek symbolon - sign, omen, password, emblem) is a sign that is associated with the objectivity it denotes in such a way that the meaning of the sign and its object are represented only by the sign itself and are revealed only through its interpretation. Already at the origins of philosophical thinking (the Upanishads) one can find the art of constructing symbols in cases where the concept collides with the transcendent. How philosophical problem the symbol is recognized by Plato, who raises the question of the very possibility of an adequate form of the absolute. The European Middle Ages made the symbol one of the general cultural principles, but the specificity of the symbol was most fully revealed only in the creative practice of the cultural takeoff of the 13th - early 14th centuries. Medieval Christian symbolism found various expressions in architecture, painting, miniatures, and legends. Symbolism is a very complex and broad phenomenon. Three separate directions can be outlined: object symbolism (sun - eye, beard, disk, tree of life, etc.), ritual symbolism (savage dances reproducing war, hunting, wedding abduction rites, etc.) and verbal symbolism. Ritual symbolism is extremely diverse. Many rituals at homelands, weddings, Christmastide, and oil celebrations have exclusively symbolic meaning in the sense of external ritual predetermination of the harvest, wealth, and happiness. Even greater is the folk verbal symbolism; it is woven into all manifestations of folk literature, especially songs. There are two old works on Russian verbal symbolism that are now a bibliographic rarity: the dissertation of N.I. Kostomarov “On the historical significance of Russian folk poetry” (1843) and the dissertation of A.A. Potebnya “On some symbols in Slavic folk poetry” (1860). Kostomarov, after brief general comments on symbolism, gives a set of Little Russian folk-poetic symbols from the kingdoms of flora and fauna, for example, violet - a symbol of virginity, periwinkle - marriage, lovage - love, cornflower - purity and holiness, hops - red tape, vine - poverty , dove - love, peahen - elegance, drake - groom, owl - sinister, etc. Potebnya dwells on symbolism in language, and notes the three main features of symbolism - comparison, opposition and causal relationship. He briefly examines the symbolic meaning of many song motifs - drink (love), salt (sadness), forging (love), smoke and dust (sadness), spill (grief), scream (love), mountains (grief) and other symbolism.

The symbol as an element and instrument of culture becomes a special subject of attention and scientific research in connection with the formation of a new humanitarian discipline - cultural studies. In some cases, culture as a whole is interpreted as a symbolic reality (even to the point of their identification, as in philosophy of symbolic forms Kaseirer), in others - a methodology is being developed transcripts the meaning that was unconsciously (or, in any case, unpurposefully) given to a cultural object; thirdly, the symbol is studied as a consciously created message of culture, and in this case, both the poetics of its creation and the mechanisms of its perception are of interest.

If we distinguish three types of message transmission in culture - direct (unambiguous connection between meaning and symbolic form), indirect (polysemantic form, has a fixed meaning, but assumes free interpretation) and symbolic (polysemantic form, makes sense only as a given limit of interpretation), then symbolic the message will be most specific to culture as a world of creative objectification, since private goal-setting always remains for the culture as a whole only elements built into it. In this sense, even an unambiguous author's intention in a cultural context becomes a symbol with an endless prospect of interpretation.

The most problematic is the understanding of cultural symbols that are devoid of direct emblems: such can be an artistic image, myth, religious or political act, ritual, custom, etc. Among the approaches that set algorithms for understanding a cultural symbol, Spengler’s morphology with its isolation stands out as the most influential biomorphic primary symbols of creativity; Marxist and neo-Marxist sociology, exposing cultural symbolism as a transformed form of class interests; structuralism and semiotics (especially the Moscow-Tartu school), seeking to find and describe stable patterns of the generation of meaning by signs and meaning systems; psychoanalysis, which reduces the symbol-creation of culture to the protective transformation of the destructive energy of the subconscious; iconology (Warburg, Panofsky), which expanded art criticism to a general discipline about the construction and transmission of a cultural image; hermeneutics, ontologizing the symbol, while shifting the emphasis not so much on it, but on the endless, but law-consistent process of its interpretation; close to hermeneutics, but polemicizing with it, dialogism (Bakhtin, Buber, Rosenstock-Hüssy) and transcendental pragmatism (Apel), emphasizing the opacity and irreducibility of a cultural symbol that acquires meaning in interpersonal communication. Often the key solution to the problem is to isolate and study some kind of elementary particle of cultural symbolism (for example, ancestral phenomena Spengler, archetypes Cabin boy, pathos formulas Warburg), which makes it possible to explain the world of culture using methods similar to analysis and synthesis (i.e., traditional methods of European rationalistic knowledge).

The symbol plays an exceptional role in religious spirituality, since it allows one to find the optimal balance of figurative appearance and sought-after transcendence. The ritual life of archaic religions is saturated with symbolism. With the birth of theistic religions, a collision arises between the fundamental invisibility of the one God and the visible forms of his manifestation: there is a danger that the symbol could turn into a pagan idol. Therefore, for theism, a symbol-sign with its abstraction and distance from naturalistic images and psychological experiences is preferable to a symbol-image that provokes peacemaking. The range of solutions to this problem ranged from prohibitions on sensory (especially anthropomorphic) imagery in Judaism and Islam to relatively strict censorship of symbolic imagery in Protestantism and intense symbolic imagery in Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Indicative in this regard is the iconoclastic movement in Byzantium in the 8th-9th centuries, which highlighted the religious and cultural antinomies of the symbol.

Medieval Christian culture makes the symbol the basis for understanding and describing the created world. The dogmatic support for this was the Incarnation, which made it not only acceptable, but also mandatory to recognize the possibility of full presence heavenly V earthly , absolute in relative. The concept of symbol is key not only for understanding the poetics of the plastic and verbal art of the Middle Ages, but also for characterizing medieval exegesis and hermeneutics to the extent that their methods go back to the Alexandrian theological school (Clement, Origen), Philo of Alexandria and partly to the tradition of Neoplatonic allegorism. This style of exegesis sought to present Holy Scripture and the entire created world as a coherent system of interconnected allegories and proclamations, and the infinity of connections of this system actually turned an allegory into a symbol. Modern Christianity is less sensitive to the distinction between symbol and allegory, but 20th century theology. again sharpened this problem: here we find both attempts to cleanse religious consciousness of symbolism (cf. Bultmann’s demythologization program) and the desire to restore the fruitful possibilities of Christian symbolism (for example, the theme of the analogy of beings in neo-Thomism). It should also be noted that significant advances in the study of the functioning of symbols in the religions of ancient societies, achieved in the 20th century. structuralism and cultural semiotics.

2. Symbolic signs in world religions

.1 Symbolic signs of Christianity

Each religion has different religious symbols. In my opinion, a religious symbol is something that can symbolize certain aspects of each faith. In ancient times, symbols were a means of communication capable of carrying deep information. In religion, these symbols are created by nature itself and people, and in this context they are capable of carrying inexhaustible meaning. Also, a religious symbol is necessary to symbolize each faith. By this symbol we determine our involvement in it.

For centuries, Christians have used symbols to express their faith. It is unlikely that anyone who visits a church or picks up a religious book will not see some symbols. They help communicate the Gospel (evangelize), nourish faith, and create a special atmosphere during worship services. They serve us as “way signs” on our earthly journey.

There are many Christian symbols. Some of them are well known, but often even believers (and not just baptized) people do not know what this or that sign was actually originally intended for. I would like to dwell on some of them.

The Lamb (lamb) as a symbol comes from the Old Testament. The Jews sacrificed a white lamb “without spot or blemish” to God. According to legend, one of the two lambs sacrificed by Aaron was adorned with a crown of thorns. The prophets of the Old Testament called the expected Messiah the Lamb of God. The Lamb became a symbol of the atonement, humility and meekness of Christ.

The butterfly is a symbol of Christ's Resurrection and eternal life for believers.

Libra is a symbol of justice and a symbol of God's fair judgment. At the Last Judgment left hand Christ or directly under his throne, a scene unfolds of the weighing of souls, which is carried out by the Archangel Michael. He holds scales in his hand, and on their two cups are the souls of the righteous (on the right of the archangel) and the sinner (on the left).

The soul of the righteous is heavier, and it outweighs; The sinner's cup is pulled down by the devil. This is how the resurrected ones presented to this Judgment are distributed - some to heaven, some to hell.

The vine is a Eucharistic image, as well as a symbol of the people of God, the Church. In his last conversation with his disciples, Jesus said: “I am the true vine, and My Father is the vinedresser...”

Water is a symbol of fast-flowing time and Baptism. It is not for nothing that one of the many symbols of Christ is a stream. The same source that flows from under the Tree of Life in Paradise is living water. This is what the Gospel says about him: “Whoever drinks the water that I will give him will never thirst.”

A dove with a green branch is a symbol of new life, it came from the Old Testament: after the flood, the dove returned to Noah with a green branch in its beak, thus notifying Noah that the water had already receded and God’s wrath had changed to mercy. Since then, the dove with an olive branch in its beak has become a symbol of peace. A white dove without a branch can represent God's presence and God's blessing.

Two trees: green and dried - the idea of ​​​​green trees and dried trees was associated with the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and the tree of life, which stood side by side in the Garden of Eden.

The mirror is a transparent sphere in the hands of an angel with the inscription "IS HR" - a symbol indicating that the angel serves Jesus Christ and is a spirit, but not an anthropomorphic being.

Keys - gold and iron symbolize the gates of heaven and hell.

The ship represents the church leading the believer safely through the stormy waves of the sea of ​​life. The cross on the mast symbolizes the message of Christ, which gives authority and guidance to the church. The name of the part of the church where the community is located, nave, means "ship".

Cross with five points - we draw a circle around the cross and as a result we get five points: the point of the autumn equinox, spring equinox, summer solstice, winter solstice and the center point. This is the fixed axis around which time moves. This visual model gives some idea of ​​the relationship between time and eternity within Christian culture.

The blood of Christ, poured out from his wounds on the cross, has, according to Christian doctrine, redemptive power. Therefore, it was common to depict it as pouring abundantly. It can flow onto the skull (of Adam) lying at the base of the cross. The skull is sometimes depicted upside down, and then the holy blood collects in it, like in a cup.

The blood of Christ, as medieval theologians believed, is a real substance, one drop of which would be enough to save the world.

Moon and Sun - the moon symbolizes the Old Testament, and the sun the New Testament, and just as the moon receives its light from the sun, so the Law (Old Testament) becomes understandable only when illuminated by the Gospel (New Testament). Sometimes the sun was symbolized by a star surrounded by flames, and the moon by a woman's face with a sickle. There are also explanations of the figures of the sun and moon as indicating the two natures of Christ or as symbols of Christ himself (sun) and the church (moon).

The olive branch is a symbol of establishing peace between God and man. The olive branch is a symbol of hope and peace.

A halo is a halo, a symbol of holiness and glory. Depicted as a circle around the head.

The hourglass traditionally symbolizes the transience of time and the mortality of all things.

The shell with three drops of water reminds us of baptism, when water was poured on us three times in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.

Fish is one of the most common symbols in ancient times that personified Christ. In the oldest part of the Roman catacombs, an image of a fish was discovered carrying on its back a basket of bread and a vessel of wine. This is a Eucharistic symbol, denoting the Savior who gives food of salvation and new life.

The Greek word for fish is made up of the initial letters of the phrase "Jesus Christ God's Son the Savior." This is the first encrypted creed.

The image of a fish was a very convenient sign, since it did not mean anything to people not initiated into the mysteries of Christianity.

The shamrock-clover symbolizes the Trinity, unification, balance, and also destruction. It can be symbolically replaced by one, large sheet. It is the emblem of St. Patrick and the coat of arms of Ireland.

Candles are still used in the Church today due to their symbolism. They stand for Christ, who is the Light of the world. The two candles on the altar emphasize the two natures of Christ - divine and human. The seven candles in the candelabra behind the altar symbolize the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.

Four symbols represent the main events in the life of Christ: the winged man - His incarnation; winged calf - His death; winged lion - His resurrection; and the winged eagle is His ascension.

The flames symbolize the anointing and power of the Holy Spirit. Fire symbolizes spiritual jealousy and can also represent the torment of hell. When a saint is depicted with a flame in his hand, it symbolizes religious fervor.

I will dwell in more detail on the most famous symbol of Christianity, the cross.

The cross in Christianity is one of the oldest and most universal symbols. It is a perfect symbol of Christ, for on it Christ sacrificed himself. However, in a broader sense, the cross has become a symbol of Christianity, as well as a symbol of redemption and salvation through Christianity.

Graphically, the cross can be depicted in different ways. For clarity, I would like to give an example of a table (Appendix No. 1).

It should be noted that there are several dozen completely different forms of the cross, both with and without the Savior depicted on them, both with and without other attributes or faces. At different periods in the history of Christianity, the Crucifixion was depicted in different ways. For Christians, the shape of the cross or its attributes have never played an important role in spiritual life. Only the redemptive feat of Christ was important, after which the Cross became a sign of our redemption. For the first time, Russian Old Believers with their characteristic ritual faith and fanaticism began to argue about the shape of the cross. After all, in the end, the shape of the Cross on which the Lord gave Himself is not so important, but the spiritual and saving significance of the voluntary suffering of Jesus.

And yet, today there are two main types of crosses: Catholic and Orthodox.

Orthodox cross. The hands of the Savior Jesus Christ were nailed to a large horizontal crossbar. The upper small horizontal crossbar signifies the tablet on which was inscribed “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.” The oblique crossbar means two crucified next to Christ, where the end of the crossbar pointing upward means the forgiven thief who went to heaven, and the end of the crossbar pointing down means the other nailed one who went to hell. According to another version, the oblique crossbar shows the foot rest of the condemned man in perspective, which did not allow the crucified person to die immediately and was used to increase the execution time.

The form of the cross in the form of two beams originated in ancient Chaldea and was used there, as well as in neighboring countries, including Egypt, as a symbol of the god Tammuz (in the form of the mystical Tau, the first letter of his name). By the middle of the 3rd century AD. e. churches have either abandoned or distorted some of the teachings of the Christian faith. The churches of apostate Christianity, in order to strengthen their position, accepted pagans into their faith without spiritual regeneration and allowed them to retain pagan signs and symbols. Thus the Tau, or T, in its most common form with the crossbar lowered, was adopted to represent the cross of Christ.

2.2 Symbolic signs in Islam

Islam (in Arabic literally means “submission”, surrendering oneself to the will of God) is one of the most widespread religions in the world. Her followers - Muslims - make up most(80 to 98%) of the population in countries such as Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, the population of the Arabian Peninsula and large parts of India and North Africa. Islam is practiced by people living in the North Caucasus, Tatarstan and the republics of Central Asia. The total number of Muslims in the world is about 500 million people.

Traditional Islam continues to play a very prominent role in various fields social life Muslim countries. For the residents of these countries, Islam is not only the state religion, but also the most important component of national culture, which largely determines the norms of behavior, life, attitude towards other peoples and events in the world.

There are such symbols of faith as:

Mosque - a religious Muslim building for collective ascension Friday prayer and departures of major holidays. In the 7th-8th centuries, a type of mosque, rectangular in plan, with a courtyard surrounded by galleries and a multi-pillar prayer hall, emerged. Mosques were usually decorated with stone or wood carvings, patterned brick or stone masonry, glazed ceramics, inlays, mosaics, and paintings. Modern mosques are built from the latest building materials, but for the most part retain the traditional layout. Minarets are usually installed next to mosques to call the faithful to prayer.

Minaret. Minaret (from Arabic, “manara,” lit., “lighthouse”) is a tower for calling Muslims to prayer, placed next to or included in the mosque building.

Early minarets often had a spiral staircase or ramp on the outside, while later minarets often had a spiral staircase or ramp inside the tower. The calls of the muezzins, often amplified by speakers, sound from the minarets 5 times a day, which gives an indescribable identity to Muslim cities.

Koran. The Koran (from Arabic, “kur”an,” lit., “reading”) is the main holy book of Muslims, a collection of sermons, ritual and legal institutions, spells and prayers, edifying stories and parables spoken by Muhammad in the form of “prophetic revelations” in Mecca and Medina between 610-632 and laid the foundation for the religious teachings of Islam.As the “word of Allah,” the Koran was proclaimed as an unattainable ideal of perfection of the Arabic language and style.

Most modern researchers of Arabic literature in Europe and the countries of the East highly appreciate reflect the poetic structure of the Koran, especially the short rhymed “revelations” of the early (“Meccan”) period, full of poetic inspiration.

Miniature Korans on a chain are worn around the neck as a talisman.

Number eight. In Islam, the throne that rules the world is supported by eight angels, corresponding to the eight directions and eight groups of letters of the Arabic alphabet.

In this regard, eight-pointed stars are also welcomed in oriental ornaments.

Namaz. Established in the 1st century AH (622). Five times a day, a Muslim kneels on a special rug and, facing the East (towards Mecca), prostrates to the ground, praying to Allah and expressing his requests. Namaz is performed at dawn, at noon, in the afternoon, at sunset and at the beginning of the night. Each prayer is preceded by obligatory ablution (with water or sand). Worshipers read (in Arabic) passages from the Koran. On Fridays, noon prayers are performed in the mosque ( Friday prayer).

It is forbidden to pray in seven places: places where garbage accumulates, places where livestock is slaughtered, among graves, in the middle of the road (where many people pass), in a bathhouse, places where camels (or other animals) are permanently located, as well as on the roof of the Kaaba (hadith from Ibn Sumara).

I would like to dwell in more detail on the star and crescent.

The symbol of Islam is a crescent and a five-pointed star. It became a symbol of the Turkish dynasty after the Ottomans captured Constantinople, where it was borrowed. Later it became a symbol of all Muslims. There is a claim that the crescent moon is associated with the hijra of the Messenger of Allah, when he secretly left Mecca and went to Medina. According to them, that night there was supposedly a crescent moon in the sky. According to other versions, the crescent moon symbolizes Muslim adherence to the lunar calendar, and the five-pointed star symbolizes the five pillars of Islam or the five daily prayers. The symbols of the crescent and star were known to mankind several thousand years before the Prophet Muhammad. It is difficult to trace their origin exactly. But most experts agree that these ancient symbols of the heavenly bodies were revered by the ancient peoples of Central Asia and Siberia, who worshiped the sun, moon and sky.

Nowadays this symbol can be seen on every mosque, for example on the mosques in Istanbul. There is not a single classic image of a crescent with a star (Appendix No. 2). This symbol also began to be depicted on the flags of Muslim states (Appendix No. 3).

2.3 Symbolic signs in Buddhism

When Buddhism took root properly in Tibet, along with it came symbols that represented what was going on in the mind. If we think today about what these symbols convey, we will have to admit that by themselves they do not look uniquely clear and understandable. With our Western tendency toward critical thinking and our school-trained ability to work with abstractions, we must be able to clearly separate the outer, "cultural" layer of teachings that concentrate on phenomena in the mind from those that concern the actual nature of the mind. We should also avoid dry situations that are intended primarily for study - situations that are many in this tradition, but which will not directly benefit us and will not help us live better, die better and be reborn better.

The main and main symbol of Buddhism is the image of Buddha Shakyamuni himself, the founder of this religion. Although historical tradition has made the veneration of the image of Buddha similar to the worship of the image of God, the Buddha remains only a person who has achieved enlightenment.

In Buddhism there is such a thing as 8 symbols of luck, such as:

The precious white umbrella once presented to the Buddha by the lord of the gods, Mahadeva, as a decoration for the fishing Symbolizes protection from disease, evil spirits and suffering in this and future lives. On a spiritual level, it dispels anger, passion, pride, envy and stupidity.

A pair of golden fish was given to Buddha by the god Vishnu as an ornament for his eyes. Symbolizes freedom from the fear of drowning in the ocean of suffering and spiritual liberation.

The white shell, twisted clockwise, was presented to the Buddha by the god Indra as an ornament for his ears. Symbolizes the sound of the Buddha's Teachings spreading freely everywhere and awakening disciples from the sleep of ignorance.

White flower A lotus with a thousand petals was given to Buddha by the god Kama as an ornament for his tongue. Symbolizes the purity of teaching and purification of body, speech and mind, leading to Enlightenment.

The precious vessel that fulfills all wishes was presented to the Buddha by the god Shadana as an ornament for his throat. Symbolizes the fulfillment of all desires, both temporary (gaining longevity, wealth and merit), and the highest - gaining liberation and Enlightenment.

The endless knot was given to Buddha by the god Ganesha as a decoration for his heart. Symbolizes the fickle nature of time, impermanence the unity and interconnectedness of all things, as well as the unity of compassion and wisdom.

The victory banner was presented to Buddha by the god Krishna as an ornament for his body. This cylindrical multi-tiered figure symbolizes the victory of the Buddha's teachings over ignorance and death.

The golden wheel of teaching with a thousand spokes was given to Buddha by Brahma as an ornament for his feet. It became known as the Wheel of Dharma. Its rotation symbolizes the preaching of the Buddha's Teachings, bringing liberation to all living beings. Usually depicted with eight spokes, which represent the "Noble Eightfold Path" of Shakyamuni Buddha:

Correct view.

Correct thinking.

Correct speech.

Correct behavior.

The right way of life.

The right effort.

Right mindfulness.

Correct contemplation.

Ashtamangala (Tashi Tagye in Tibetan) is all eight symbols drawn together. They are often depicted on the walls of houses, in monasteries, temples, on doors and curtains. last grounds.

Also in Buddhism there are such religious symbols as:

Lotus is the purest plant in nature. This is the power of creation, creative power, longevity. In Buddhism, the lotus represents the absence of attachment to samsara (the circle of rebirth), and, therefore, freedom from the need to incarnate in order to live on earth. The seeds of this plant are used to make rosary beads used in reciting prayers.

Traditionally, many Indian gods were depicted holding a lotus flower in their hands or sitting on a lotus. This symbolizes their purity, chastity and divine power. The lotus is associated with the three primary elements (earth, water and air), and man is associated with the three worlds (intellectual, material and spiritual).

Kangling. This musical instrument, used by Tibetan mystics when performing various rituals and ceremonies. Kangling is made from human tibia and is often set in silver.

Blowing the kangling aimlessly is prohibited - its use is permissible only during certain ceremonies. There are strict requirements for the production of this symbol of Buddhism: bones with defects, bones of madmen, murderers, suicides and other desecrated people cannot be used.

Purba. A ritual dagger that is intended to drive out evil spirits. This item is used in the following way: the person performing the ritual must inflict piercing blows with a dagger (of course, on the demons with whom he is fighting) and at the same time pronounce the mantra “hum”.

In some rituals of Tantric Buddhism, the phurba dagger is used as a weapon capable of subjugating forces opposing the teachings. In addition, this symbol of Buddhism allows you to destroy attachment to your own “I” - one of the main barriers to enlightenment.

Mandala is a sacred symbol and ritual object used in meditation. The mandala symbolizes the pure lands of the Buddhas, the realm of divine beings. Typically, a mandala is a symbol of an extremely complex structure that can be interpreted as a “map of the cosmos,” a kind of model of the universe.

There are relief and two-dimensional mandalas; these symbols are depicted in sand, drawn on fabric, or made of stone, metal or wood. For some rituals, mandalas are made from colored powders. They are destroyed at the end of the ritual.

Samsara is the circle of rebirth. Many symbols of Buddhism are interconnected, and the circle of samsara is no exception; it can be associated with the law of karma. Samsara is an eternal cycle, a circle that is in the claws of a demon.

A person will be reincarnated again and again until all his karma (both negative and positive) is worked out. And when nothing binds him to the earth, he will be able to go to more perfect worlds and actually become enlightened - Buddha.

Mantra. This is not exactly a symbol of Buddhism, but rather a mystical formula consisting of sounds. Mantras have been used since ancient times in various spiritual traditions of India, usually in combination with ritual gestures (mudra), as well as with special body positions (asana).

The sacred texts of Buddhism mention many mantras, one of the main ones being the word “OM” - the laughter of the universe. The symbolic meaning of mantras lies in the ability of the mind to influence matter. But a mantra cannot be called a prayer in the full sense of the word, since when reading them, only the exact reproduction of sounds matters, but not the meaning of the statement (Appendix No. 4).

3. Symbols of national religions

Examples of symbols of national religions include:

Baha'i. The most common symbols associated with the Bahá'í Faith are the nine-pointed star (nine is a sacred number), the symbol of the Greatest Name, and the "Symbol on the Ring".

Taoism. Taoism is a Chinese teaching that is religious and philosophical in nature, and also combines features of mysticism, shamanism and meditation practice.

The main sources of Taoism were the mystical and shamanic cults of the kingdom of Chu and other “barbarian” states in southern China, the doctrine of immortality and magical practices that developed in the kingdom of Qi and the philosophical tradition of northern China. Philosophical writings related to Taoism begin with the era of the Warring States (Zhangguo) in the 5th century BC, almost simultaneously with the teachings of Confucius. Tradition considers the legendary Yellow Emperor Huangdi to be the founder of Taoism.

Symbol of Yin and Yang. Yang - white, masculine, emphasis on the external; Yin - black, feminine, emphasis on the inner.

Zoroastrianism. The symbol of Zoroastrianism is the faravahar - a winged disc with the upper part of the human body. Means Divine Blessing. According to one version - Tsar's Glory, Shining Glory. Also used in Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and other peoples of the East.

Hinduism. The symbol of Hinduism is the quintessence of the word “Om” or “Aum” - the universal name of God, the three letter signs of which personify the three main gods and the sphere of their action - Creation, Maintenance and Destruction, and also identify three states of consciousness - awakening, meditative immersion and deep sleep .

The swastika is a Hindu symbol of the Sun, harmony, unity of forces and elements, as well as favorable destinies.

Judaism. The Star of David is a six-pointed star, which was depicted in its entirety, without intersections or lines (that is, not like on the flag of the modern state of Israel). Its meaning was that it reflected the five basic feelings of a person (symbolized by the five ends, except for the upper one), which were all supposed to submit to the sixth most important feeling - aspiration and obedience to the Living God. This is an image that is sometimes found even on ancient icons.

Occultism. One of the oldest complex mystical symbols is the pentagram - a regular non-convex pentagon, also known as a regular star-shaped pentagon, or a regular pentagonal star. The first mention of the pentagram dates back to Ancient Greece. Translated from Greek, “pentagram” literally means five lines. The pentagram was the hallmark of the Pythagorean school (circa 580-500 BC). They believed that this beautiful polygon had many mystical properties. For example, the number of rays of this star was represented by the Pythagoreans as the number of love: 5 = 2 + 3; 2 is the first feminine number, 3 is the first masculine number. That is why the pentagram was a symbol of life and health; it was assigned the ability to protect a person from evil spirits. The pentagram was considered protection against evil and witchcraft. In the Middle Ages, it was painted in front of the entrance to the house and on the doors in order to ward off evil. The Pentagon (pentagon) is an amulet of health, a symbol of eternity and perfection, a magical remedy in conspiracies and some rituals. A regular pentagon in the form of a star served as the emblem of many gods: the Egyptian Thoth, the Aztec Quetzalcoatl, the Roman Mercury, the Celtic Gawain... This sign was the totem of the American Indians. The Greeks used it as a sign of the cross, the Jews - as a sign of prosperity, the legendary key of Solomon. Solomon's army had shields with the image of a yellow six-pointed star. For Christians, it symbolized the five wounds of Jesus, and for the Japanese it served as a sign of high status in society. Apparently, the pentagram originally appeared four thousand years ago in Mesopotamia, probably as an astronomical diagram of the movement of the planet Venus. It became the Sumerian and Egyptian star sign. This figure primarily denotes a person: the top point is the head, the other four are the limbs. It is sometimes seen as a depiction of the five senses. Light magicians, in order to act on spirits, used the Pentagram with the head up, and black magicians drew the Pentagram with the head down. Faust drew a pentagram so that Mephistopheles could not cross the threshold of his house. For the Pythagoreans, a pentagram inscribed in a circle meant the silence of the initiate. The five ends of the pentagram symbolized the five years of silence and study that preceded initiation. Recently, the true role of the pentagram has begun to be forgotten, although previously it served as a symbol of protection even among Christians. Now it is used by some “forgotten” religions (which are not occult), based on magic and the veneration of nature.

Sikhism. The Sikh symbol is called "khanda". It is composed of three ceremonial kirpan daggers gathered together at the hilt and a steel kara bracelet located behind the middle dagger.

Satanism. The Seal of Baphomet is the official symbol of the Church of Satan. It is an inverted pentagram (a regular five-pointed star, two rays of which are directed upward) with the head of a goat inscribed in it. In the ring around the pentagram, opposite each ray of the star, the name “Leviathan” is inscribed. Or, only the inverted pentagram can be used, which has been known as the Satanic symbol since the 19th century (Appendix No. 5).

Conclusion

Christianity symbol Buddhism pentagram

The main purpose of the symbolism of religions is to display God or Gods revered by a given religion. There are a great variety of symbols, like religions, in the world.

Each religion has its own distinctive symbols that convey the fundamental ideas of this tradition through visual images. Religious symbols, as a rule, contain a secret meaning and esotericism that is inaccessible to unambiguous rational interpretation. The most famous symbols of religions: the symbol of Buddhism - the Dharmachakra or the wheel of law; symbol of Islam - a crescent and a five-pointed star; symbol of Christianity - various forms of the cross.

Religious systems develop around complexes of symbolic meanings - codes on the basis of which they are structured, special combinations of symbols used in them, conditions for their use, preservation and change as parts of action systems.

In religion, symbols express what cannot be expressed in any other way. This is the only way to express the sacred. For Durkheim, “sacred things” are symbols whose meanings cannot be interpreted in terms of properties inherent in those things themselves.

All religious rituals have their own symbolic meaning, without understanding which they become empty superstition. The fates of religions and symbols have always been closely intertwined. Since ancient times, there has been a tradition of denoting religious concepts using special “code” images that stimulate human perception when it comes to too complex realities. In ritual, all words, gestures, sounds, smells are symbols that reflect the inner content of religion and have a deep meaning. Religious symbolism is an important part of culture, closely intertwined with nature and human needs.

The main task of numerous symbols of all world religions is the visible image of the Higher Powers with the help of allegory. Religious symbols help believers realize and better understand their faith; they connect a meaningful perception of faith with an emotional one.

Symbolism has always been present in various religions; it plays an integral role in the culture of religion. Each religion has and has a rich world of symbols. In my course work It is stated that there are both world and national religions. I reviewed and studied the main types of symbols in various religious systems, and understood the meaning of each symbolic sign.

Symbols are the outer and visible forms of inner spiritual realities, and the achievement of the ability to discover the reality behind any particular form. We found out that there are three world religions, such as: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. Each of these religions has a large number of symbolic signs.

The main symbol of Christianity is the cross. The cross in Christianity is one of the oldest and most universal symbols. It is a perfect symbol of Christ, for on it Christ sacrificed himself. However, in a broader sense, the cross has become a symbol of Christianity, as well as a symbol of redemption and salvation through Christianity.

The traditional symbol of Islam is a crescent with a star. In fact, the crescent moon and star symbol predates Islam by several thousand years. Information about the origin of these symbols is difficult to obtain, but most sources agree that these ancient astronomical symbols were used by various peoples in the worship of the Sun, Moon and sky deities.

The symbol of Buddhism is the image of Buddha; this religion is also rich in symbols, there are many of them.

In addition to world religions, there are also national ones. They also have a large number of signs and symbols.

In conclusion, I would like to say that any symbol and sign in religion has its own content, and each of us sees it differently, I believe that this is the essence of the symbol itself.

Bibliography

1. #"justify">. Gordienko A. N. Encyclopedia of symbols. - M.: EKSMO, 2007.

. "Interesting newspaper. Magic and mysticism" No. 24 2010.

Golubtsov A.P. From the history of images of the cross. - St. Petersburg, 1917.

Uvarov A.S. Christian symbolism. - St. Petersburg: Aletheia, 2001.

. #"justify">. Bir Robert Encyclopedia of Tibetan symbols and ornaments. - Oh, 2011.

. #"justify">. #"justify"> Annex 1

Ill.TitleNote<#"50" src="doc_zip2.jpg" /> <#"50" src="doc_zip3.jpg" /> <#"42" src="doc_zip4.jpg" /> <#"56" src="doc_zip5.jpg" /> <#"67" src="doc_zip6.jpg" /> <#"45" src="doc_zip7.jpg" /> <#"61" src="doc_zip8.jpg" /> <#"43" src="doc_zip9.jpg" /> <#"60" src="doc_zip10.jpg" /> <#"55" src="doc_zip11.jpg" /> <#"74" src="doc_zip12.jpg" /> <#"63" src="doc_zip13.jpg" /> <#"50" src="doc_zip14.jpg" /> <#"44" src="doc_zip15.jpg" /> <#"50" src="doc_zip16.jpg" /> <#"47" src="doc_zip17.jpg" /> <#"48" src="doc_zip18.jpg" /> <#"50" src="doc_zip19.jpg" /> <#"50" src="doc_zip20.jpg" /> <#"32" src="doc_zip21.jpg" /> <#"62" src="doc_zip22.jpg" /> <#"31" src="doc_zip23.jpg" /> <#"45" src="doc_zip24.jpg" /> <#"50" src="doc_zip25.jpg" /> <#"32" src="doc_zip26.jpg" /> <#"31" src="doc_zip27.jpg" /> <#"32" src="doc_zip28.jpg" /> <#"32" src="doc_zip29.jpg" /> <#"justify">Appendix 2

Appendix 3

Appendix 4

Appendix 5

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