Basic information from internal and external ballistics. Internal ballistics, shot and its periods What is external ballistics bullet flight path

When it comes to ammo, I consider myself nothing more than an amateur - I do a bit of ammo reloading, play SolidWorks, and read dusty tomes full of results. hard work people who have collected detailed information about cartridges. I honestly crammed but not a true expert. But when I started writing, I found that very few people I meet know as much about cartridges as I do.

By the way, this situation is perfectly illustrated by comparing the number of participants in the IAA forum (about 3200 people at the time of writing), with the AR15.com forum, where the number of registered members is approaching half a million. And don't forget that IAA forum the largest English-language forum for collectors/ammunition enthusiasts- at least to my knowledge, and AR15.com is just one of the many large gun forums on the net.

In any case, being a part of the gun world both as a shooter and as an author, I have heard a lot of myths about ammunition and ballistics, some of them are pretty obvious to most people, but others are repeated much more often than they should be. What is behind some of these myths and what is the truth?

1. More is better

I put this statement first because it is the most widely used. And this myth will never die, as it is clear enough. If you have it handy, then take and compare the cartridge of caliber .45 ACP with 9 mm, or .308 Winchester with .223; any two cartridges that differ greatly in size and weight will do. This is true obviously, which makes the explanation somewhat more difficult, that a large cartridge is the best cartridge, since it does much more damage. There's a serious .45 ACP bullet in your hand, it's all three quarter ounces (21.2 grams), and it even feels a lot more solid and powerful compared to a 9mm or .32 or any other smaller caliber bullet.

I won't spend much time making assumptions "Why"? Maybe it all comes from our ancestors picking up stones in the river to hunt birds, but I think that such a reaction does not allow this myth to disappear.

Cartridges .308 Win RWS & LAPUA, as well as their ballistics.

But regardless of the cause, the external ballistics of various bullets is a complex subject, and often the results differ from the assumptions that can be made based on dimensions alone. different bullets. High-velocity rifle bullets that devastate on impact, such as can inflict much more severe wounds than large-caliber bullets of larger weight and size, especially if the target is not protected. Explosive hollow-jacketed bullets, even in small calibers like .32, can shatter and cause more damage than a .45-caliber jacketed bullet. Even the shape of the bullet can affect the nature of the damage, so a flat, angular bullet will cut and tear tissue better than a larger caliber bullet with a rounded nose.

None of this says a larger caliber never is not more effective, or that everything is the same and to a certain extent, modern faring or expanding bullets do not differ in efficiency, the truth is that the external ballistics of a bullet is much deeper and more complex, and often real results different bullets are contrary to expectations.

2. Longer barrel = proportionally higher speed

This is one of the myths in which the catch is intuitively felt. If we double the length of the barrel, we double the speed, So? Most likely, for my readers it is obvious, it is not so, but there are still many people who hold this false claim (even the designer Loren C. Cook (Loren C. Cook) repeated this myth, advertising his submachine gun). This is an obvious assumption based on the information that longer rifle barrels (often) provide increased bullet velocity, but it is incorrect.

The relationship between barrel length and bullet speed is actually very differentiated, but its essence is this: When the powder in the cartridge ignites, gases are formed that expand and put pressure on the bottom of the bullet. When the bullet is clamped in the case, when the powder burns, the pressure rises, and this pressure pushes the bullet out of the case, and then pushes it along the bore, losing its energy, in addition, the pressure decreases due to a significant and constant increase in the volume in which the gas is located . This means that the energy of the propellant gases decreases with every inch of barrel length, and its maximum value is reached just in weapons with a short barrel. For example, increasing the length of a rifle barrel from 10 to 13 inches can mean an increase in bullet speed by hundreds of feet per second, while increasing the length from 21 to 24 inches can mean an increase in speed of only a couple of tens of feet per second. You often hear that the change in pressure and force on the bottom of a bullet is called "pressure curve".

In turn, this curve and its relationship with the length of the barrel is different for different charges. Rifle-caliber Magnum cartridges use a very slow-burning explosive that provides a significant change in bullet velocity even when using a long barrel. Pistol cartridges, on the other hand, use fast-burning propellants, which means that after a few inches, the increase in bullet speed due to the use of a longer barrel becomes negligible. In fact, when shooting a pistol cartridge from a long rifle barrel, you will even get a slightly lower muzzle velocity compared to a short barrel, since the friction between the bullet and the bore will begin to slow down the flight of the bullet more than the additional pressure will speed it up.

3. Caliber matters, bullet type doesn't.

This strange arrogant opinion pops up very often in conversations, especially in the form of the phrase: “Caliber X is not enough. You need a Y-gauge”, while the mentioned calibers differ little from each other. It is possible that someone chooses a caliber that is completely inappropriate for the task at hand, but most often such discussions revolve around cartridges that are more or less suitable for the task, with the right choice of bullet type.

And now such a discussion becomes more substantive than just a myth: in almost all such disputes, one should pay more attention to the choice of the type of bullet, and not to the caliber and power of the charge. After all, between the .45 ACP jacketed bullet and the .45 ACP HST expansive cavity bullet, the difference in efficiency is much greater than between the 9mm HST and the .45 ACP HST. Choosing one caliber or another probably won't make a huge difference in hitting results, but choosing the type of bullet definitely makes a difference!

Excerpts from an hour and a half seminar "Ballistics" by Sergei Yudin within the framework of the project "National Shooting Association".

4. Momentum = Stopping power

Momentum is mass multiplied by speed, a very easy-to-understand physical quantity. A large man running into you on the street will push you away more than a petite girl if they are moving at the same speed. More splashes from a large stone. This simple value is easy to calculate and understand. The larger something and the faster it moves, the more momentum it has.

That's why it was natural to use momentum as a rough estimate of the bullet's stopping power. This approach has spread throughout the gun community, from reviews that give no information other than that the larger the bullet, the louder the ringing sound of hitting a steel target, to Taylor Knock-Out Index, in which momentum is related to bullet diameter in an attempt to calculate stopping power over big game. However, while momentum is an important ballistic characteristic, it is not directly related to the effectiveness of the bullet on impact, or "stopping power".

Momentum is a conserved quantity, which means that since the bullet moves forward under the action of expanding gases, the weapon, when fired by this bullet, will move backward with the same momentum as the total momentum of the bullet and powder gases. Which means that the momentum of a bullet fired from the shoulder or from the hands is not sufficient to cause even significant damage to a person, not to mention the murder. The momentum of the bullet, at the moment it hits the target, does nothing but possibly bruise the tissues and give a very small push. The lethality of a shot, in turn, is determined by the speed at which the bullet travels and the size of the channel that the bullet creates inside the target.

This article is deliberately written in an attention-grabbing and very general manner, as I plan to address these issues in more detail, at various levels of complexity, and I want to know how readers will be interested in such a topic. If you want me to talk more about ammunition and ballistics, tell me about it in the comments.

Interesting bullet ballistics from the National Geographic channel.

In which there is no traction or driving force and moment, is called the ballistic trajectory. If the mechanism that drives the object remains operational throughout the entire time of movement, it belongs to a number of aviation or dynamic ones. The trajectory of an aircraft during flight with the engines turned off at high altitude can also be called ballistic.

On an object that moves along the given coordinates, only the mechanism that sets the body in action, the forces of resistance and gravity, acts. A set of such factors excludes the possibility of rectilinear motion. This rule works even in space.

The body describes a trajectory that is similar to an ellipse, hyperbola, parabola or circle. The last two options are achieved at the second and first cosmic velocities. Calculations for movement along a parabola or a circle are carried out to determine the trajectory ballistic missile.

Taking into account all the parameters during launch and flight (mass, speed, temperature, etc.), the following features of the trajectory are distinguished:

• In order to launch the rocket as far as possible, you need to choose the right angle. The best is sharp, around 45º.
• The object has the same initial and final speeds.
• The body lands at the same angle as it is launched.
• The time of movement of the object from the start to the middle, as well as from the middle to the finish point, is the same.

Trajectory properties and practical implications

The movement of the body after the cessation of influence on it driving force studies external ballistics. This science provides calculations, tables, scales, sights and develops the best options for shooting. The ballistic trajectory of a bullet is a curved line that describes the center of gravity of an object in flight.

Since the body is affected by gravity and resistance, the path that the bullet (projectile) describes forms the shape of a curved line. Under the action of the reduced forces, the speed and height of the object gradually decreases. There are several trajectories: flat, hinged and conjugated.

The first is achieved by using an elevation angle that is smaller than the greatest range angle. If for different trajectories the flight range remains the same, such a trajectory can be called conjugate. In the case when the elevation angle is greater than the angle of the greatest range, the path becomes called hinged.

The trajectory of the ballistic movement of an object (bullet, projectile) consists of points and sections:

• departure(for example, the muzzle of the barrel) - this point is the beginning of the path, and, accordingly, the reference.
• Horizon Arms- this section passes through the departure point. The trajectory crosses it twice: during release and fall.
• Elevation site- this is a line that is a continuation of the horizon forms a vertical plane. This area is called the shooting plane.
• Path vertices- this is the point that is in the middle between the start and end points (shot and fall), has the highest angle throughout the entire path.
• Leads- the target or place of the sight and the beginning of the movement of the object form the aiming line. An aiming angle is formed between the horizon of the weapon and the final target.

Rockets: features of launch and movement

There are guided and unguided ballistic missiles. The formation of the trajectory is also influenced by external and external factors (resistance forces, friction, weight, temperature, required flight range, etc.).

The general path of the launched body can be described by the following steps:

• Launch. In this case, the rocket enters the first stage and begins its movement. From this moment, the measurement of the height of the flight path of a ballistic missile begins.
• About a minute later, the second engine starts.
• 60 seconds after the second stage, the third engine starts.
• Then the body enters the atmosphere.
• The last thing is the explosion of warheads.

Rocket launch and movement curve formation

The rocket travel curve consists of three parts: the launch period, free flight, and re-entry into the earth's atmosphere.

Live projectiles are launched from a fixed point of portable installations, as well as Vehicle(ships, submarines). Bringing into flight lasts from ten thousandths of a second to several minutes. Free fall is most of ballistic missile flight path.

The advantages of running such a device are:

• Long free flight time. Thanks to this property, fuel consumption is significantly reduced in comparison with other rockets. For flight prototypes ( cruise missiles) more economical engines (for example, jet engines) are used.
• At the speed at which the intercontinental gun is moving (about 5 thousand m / s), interception is given with great difficulty.
• A ballistic missile is able to hit a target at a distance of up to 10,000 km.

In theory, the path of movement of a projectile is a phenomenon from the general theory of physics, a section of the dynamics of rigid bodies in motion. With respect to these objects, the movement of the center of mass and the movement around it are considered. The first relates to the characteristics of the object making the flight, the second - to stability and control.

Since the body has programmed trajectories for flight, the calculation of the ballistic trajectory of the rocket is determined by physical and dynamic calculations.

Modern developments in ballistics

Since combat missiles of any kind are life-threatening, the main task of defense is to improve points for launching damaging systems. The latter must ensure the complete neutralization of intercontinental and ballistic weapons at any point in the movement. A multi-tiered system is proposed for consideration:

• This invention consists of separate tiers, each of which has its own purpose: the first two will be equipped with laser-type weapons (homing missiles, electromagnetic guns).
• The next two sections are equipped with the same weapons, but designed to destroy the warheads of enemy weapons.

Developments in defense rocketry do not stand still. Scientists are engaged in the modernization of a quasi-ballistic missile. The latter is presented as an object that has a low path in the atmosphere, but at the same time abruptly changes direction and range.

The ballistic trajectory of such a rocket does not affect the speed: even at extremely low altitude, the object moves faster than a normal one. For example, the development of the Russian Federation "Iskander" flies at supersonic speed - from 2100 to 2600 m / s with a mass of 4 kg 615 g, missile cruises move a warhead weighing up to 800 kg. When flying, it maneuvers and evades missile defenses.

Intercontinental weapons: control theory and components

Multistage ballistic missiles are called intercontinental. This name appeared for a reason: because of the long flight range, it becomes possible to transfer cargo to the other end of the Earth. The main combat substance (charge), basically, is an atomic or thermonuclear substance. The latter is placed in front of the projectile.

Further, the control system, engines and fuel tanks are installed in the design. Dimensions and weight depend on the required flight range: the greater the distance, the higher the starting weight and dimensions of the structure.

The ballistic flight path of an ICBM is distinguished from the trajectory of other missiles by altitude. A multi-stage rocket goes through the launch process, then moves upward at a right angle for several seconds. The control system ensures the direction of the gun towards the target. The first stage of the rocket drive after complete burnout is independently separated, at the same moment the next one is launched. Upon reaching a predetermined speed and flight altitude, the rocket begins to rapidly move down towards the target. The flight speed to the destination object reaches 25 thousand km/h.

World developments of special-purpose missiles

About 20 years ago, during the modernization of one of the medium-range missile systems, a project for anti-ship ballistic missiles was adopted. This design is placed on an autonomous launch platform. The weight of the projectile is 15 tons, and the launch range is almost 1.5 km.

The trajectory of a ballistic missile to destroy ships is not amenable to quick calculations, so it is impossible to predict the actions of the enemy and eliminate this weapon.

This development has the following advantages:

• Launch range. This value is 2-3 times greater than that of the prototypes.
• The speed and altitude of the flight military weapon invulnerable to missile defense.

World experts are confident that weapons of mass destruction can still be detected and neutralized. For such purposes, special reconnaissance out-of-orbit stations, aviation, submarines, ships, etc. are used. The most important "opposition" is space reconnaissance, which is presented in the form of radar stations.

The ballistic trajectory is determined by the intelligence system. The received data is transmitted to the destination. The main problem is the rapid obsolescence of information - for short period Over time, the data loses its relevance and may differ from the real location of the weapon at a distance of up to 50 km.

Characteristics of combat complexes of the domestic defense industry

The most powerful weapon of the present time is considered to be an intercontinental ballistic missile, which is placed permanently. Domestic missile system"R-36M2" is one of the best. It contains a super strong combat weapon"15A18M", which is capable of carrying up to 36 individual precision-guided nuclear projectiles.

The ballistic trajectory of such weapons is almost impossible to predict, respectively, the neutralization of the missile also presents difficulties. combat power projectile is 20 Mt. If this munition explodes at a low altitude, the communication, control, and anti-missile defense systems will fail.

Modifications of the given rocket launcher can also be used for peaceful purposes.

Among solid-propellant missiles, the RT-23 UTTKh is considered especially powerful. Such a device is based autonomously (mobile). In the stationary prototype station ("15ZH60"), the starting thrust is 0.3 higher compared to the mobile version.

Missile launches that are carried out directly from the stations are difficult to neutralize, because the number of shells can reach 92 units.

Missile systems and installations of the foreign defense industry

The height of the ballistic trajectory of the rocket of the American Minuteman-3 complex does not differ much from the flight characteristics of domestic inventions.

The complex, which is developed in the USA, is the only "defender" North America among weapons of this kind until today. Despite the prescription of the invention, the stability indicators of the guns are not bad even at the present time, because the missiles of the complex could withstand missile defense, as well as hit the target with high level protection. The active phase of the flight is short, and is 160 s.

Another American invention is the Peekeper. He could also provide an accurate hit on the target due to the most advantageous ballistic trajectory. Experts claim that combat capabilities of the given complex is almost 8 times higher than that of the Minuteman. Combat duty "Peskyper" was 30 seconds.

Projectile flight and movement in the atmosphere

From the section of dynamics, the influence of air density on the speed of movement of any body in various layers of the atmosphere is known. The function of the last parameter takes into account the dependence of the density directly on the flight altitude and is expressed as:

H (y) \u003d 20000-y / 20000 + y;

where y is the flight height of the projectile (m).

The calculation of the parameters, as well as the trajectory of an intercontinental ballistic missile, can be performed using special computer programs. The latter will provide statements, as well as data on flight altitude, speed and acceleration, and the duration of each stage.

The experimental part confirms the calculated characteristics, and proves that the speed is influenced by the shape of the projectile (the better the streamlining, the higher the speed).

Guided weapons of mass destruction of the last century

All weapons of the given type can be divided into two groups: ground and aviation. Ground devices are devices that are launched from stationary stations (for example, mines). Aviation, respectively, is launched from the carrier ship (aircraft).

The ground-based group includes ballistic, winged and anti-aircraft missiles. For aviation - projectiles, ADB and guided projectiles air combat.

The main characteristic of the calculation of the ballistic trajectory is the height (several thousand kilometers above the atmosphere). At a given level above ground level, projectiles reach high speeds and create enormous difficulties for their detection and neutralization of missile defense systems.

Well-known ballistic missiles, which are designed for an average flight range, are: Titan, Thor, Jupiter, Atlas, etc.

The ballistic trajectory of a missile, which is launched from a point and hits the given coordinates, has the shape of an ellipse. The size and length of the arc depends on the initial parameters: speed, launch angle, mass. If the speed of the projectile is equal to the first space velocity (8 km/s), the combat weapon, which is launched parallel to the horizon, will turn into a satellite of the planet with a circular orbit.

Despite constant improvement in the field of defense, the flight path of a live projectile remains virtually unchanged. At the moment, technology is not able to violate the laws of physics that all bodies obey. A small exception are homing missiles - they can change direction depending on the movement of the target.

Inventors anti-missile systems also modernize and develop a weapon for the destruction of funds mass destruction new generation.

external ballistics. Trajectory and its elements. Exceeding the trajectory of the bullet above the point of aim. Trajectory shape

External ballistics

External ballistics is a science that studies the movement of a bullet (grenade) after the action of powder gases on it has ceased.

Having flown out of the bore under the action of powder gases, the bullet (grenade) moves by inertia. A grenade with a jet engine moves by inertia after the expiration of gases from the jet engine.

Bullet trajectory (side view)

Formation of air resistance force

Trajectory and its elements

A trajectory is a curved line described by the center of gravity of a bullet (grenade) in flight.

A bullet (grenade) when flying in the air is subject to the action of two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes the bullet (grenade) to gradually lower, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet (grenade) and tends to overturn it. As a result of the action of these forces, the speed of the bullet (grenade) gradually decreases, and its trajectory is an unevenly curved curved line in shape.

Air resistance to the flight of a bullet (grenade) is caused by the fact that air is an elastic medium and therefore part of the energy of the bullet (grenade) is expended on movement in this medium.

The force of air resistance is caused by three main causes: air friction, the formation of vortices and the formation of a ballistic wave.

Air particles in contact with a moving bullet (grenade), due to internal adhesion (viscosity) and adhesion to its surface, create friction and reduce the speed of the bullet (grenade).

The layer of air adjacent to the surface of the bullet (grenade), in which the movement of particles changes from the speed of the bullet (grenade) to zero, is called the boundary layer. This layer of air, flowing around the bullet, breaks away from its surface and does not have time to immediately close behind the bottom.

A rarefied space is formed behind the bottom of the bullet, as a result of which a pressure difference appears on the head and bottom parts. This difference creates a force directed in the direction opposite to the movement of the bullet, and reduces the speed of its flight. Air particles, trying to fill the rarefaction formed behind the bullet, create a vortex.

A bullet (grenade) in flight collides with air particles and causes them to oscillate. As a result, air density increases in front of the bullet (grenade) and sound waves are formed. Therefore, the flight of a bullet (grenade) is accompanied by a characteristic sound. At a bullet (grenade) flight speed that is less than the speed of sound, the formation of these waves has little effect on its flight, since the waves propagate faster than the bullet (grenade) flight speed. When the speed of the bullet is higher than the speed of sound, a wave of highly compacted air is created from the incursion of sound waves against each other - a ballistic wave that slows down the speed of the bullet, since the bullet spends part of its energy to create this wave.

The resultant (total) of all forces resulting from the influence of air on the flight of a bullet (grenade) is the force of air resistance. The point of application of the resistance force is called the center of resistance.

The effect of the force of air resistance on the flight of a bullet (grenade) is very large; it causes a decrease in the speed and range of the bullet (grenade). For example, a bullet mod. 1930 at an angle of throw of 15 ° and an initial speed of 800 m / s in airless space would have flown at a distance of 32,620 m; the flight range of this bullet under the same conditions, but in the presence of air resistance, is only 3900 m.

The magnitude of the air resistance force depends on the flight speed, the shape and caliber of the bullet (grenade), as well as on its surface and air density.

The force of air resistance increases with the increase in the speed of the bullet, its caliber and air density.

At supersonic bullet speeds, when the main cause of air resistance is the formation of an air seal in front of the head (ballistic wave), bullets with an elongated pointed head are advantageous. At subsonic grenade flight speeds, when the main cause of air resistance is the formation of rarefied space and turbulence, grenades with an elongated and narrowed tail are beneficial.

The effect of the force of air resistance on the flight of a bullet: CG - center of gravity; CA - center of air resistance

The smoother the surface of the bullet, the lower the friction force and. force of air resistance.

The variety of shapes of modern bullets (grenades) is largely determined by the need to reduce the force of air resistance.

Under the influence of initial perturbations (shocks) at the moment the bullet leaves the bore between the bullet axis and the tangent to the trajectory, an angle (b) is formed and the air resistance force acts not along the bullet axis, but at an angle to it, trying not only to slow down the movement of the bullet, but and knock her over.

In order to prevent the bullet from tipping over under the action of air resistance, it is given a rapid rotational movement with the help of rifling in the bore.

For example, when fired from Kalashnikov assault rifle the speed of rotation of the bullet at the moment of departure from the bore is about 3000 revolutions per second.

During the flight of a rapidly rotating bullet in the air, the following phenomena occur. The force of air resistance tends to turn the bullet head up and back. But the head of the bullet, as a result of rapid rotation, according to the property of the gyroscope, tends to maintain the given position and deviates not upwards, but very slightly in the direction of its rotation at a right angle to the direction of the air resistance force, i.e. to the right. As soon as the head of the bullet deviates to the right, the direction of the air resistance force will change - it tends to turn the head of the bullet to the right and back, but the head of the bullet does not turn to the right, but down, etc. Since the action of the air resistance force is continuous, but its direction relative to the bullet changes with each deviation of the bullet axis, then the head of the bullet describes a circle, and its axis is a cone with a vertex at the center of gravity. The so-called slow conical, or precessional, movement takes place, and the bullet flies with its head part forward, i.e., as it were, follows the change in the curvature of the trajectory.

Slow conical movement of the bullet

Derivation (Trajectory top view)

The effect of air resistance on the flight of a grenade

The axis of slow conical motion lags somewhat behind the tangent to the trajectory (located above the latter). Consequently, the bullet collides with the air flow more with its lower part and the axis of the slow conical movement deviates in the direction of rotation (to the right when the barrel is right-handed). The deviation of the bullet from the plane of fire in the direction of its rotation is called derivation.

Thus, the causes of derivation are: the rotational movement of the bullet, air resistance and the decrease under the action of gravity of the tangent to the trajectory. In the absence of at least one of these reasons, there will be no derivation.

In shooting charts, derivation is given as heading correction in thousandths. However, when firing small arms the magnitude of the derivation is insignificant (for example, at a distance of 500 m it does not exceed 0.1 thousandth) and its effect on the shooting results is practically not taken into account.

The stability of the grenade in flight is ensured by the presence of a stabilizer, which allows you to move the center of air resistance back, behind the center of gravity of the grenade.

As a result, the force of air resistance turns the axis of the grenade to a tangent to the trajectory, forcing the grenade to move forward.

To improve accuracy, some grenades are given slow rotation due to the outflow of gases. Due to the rotation of the grenade, the moments of forces that deviate the axis of the grenade act sequentially in different directions, so the shooting improves.

To study the trajectory of a bullet (grenade), the following definitions are adopted.

The center of the muzzle of the barrel is called the departure point. The departure point is the start of the trajectory.

Trajectory elements

The horizontal plane passing through the departure point is called the weapon's horizon. In the drawings depicting the weapon and the trajectory from the side, the horizon of the weapon appears as a horizontal line. The trajectory crosses the horizon of the weapon twice: at the point of departure and at the point of impact.

A straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore of the aimed weapon, is called the line of elevation.

The vertical plane passing through the line of elevation is called the shooting plane.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the horizon of the weapon is called the angle of elevation. If this angle is negative, then it is called the angle of declination (decrease).

The straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore at the moment the bullet takes off, is called the line of throw.

The angle enclosed between the line of throw and the horizon of the weapon is called the angle of throw.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of throw is called the departure angle.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon is called the point of impact.

The angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon is called the angle of incidence.

The distance from the point of departure to the point of impact is called the full horizontal range.

The speed of a bullet (grenade) at the point of impact is called the final speed.

The time of movement of a bullet (grenade) from the point of departure to the point of impact is called full time flight.

The highest point of the trajectory is called the vertex of the trajectory.

The shortest distance from the top of the trajectory to the horizon of the weapon is called the height of the trajectory.

The part of the trajectory from the departure point to the top is called the ascending branch; the part of the trajectory from the top to the point of fall is called the descending branch of the trajectory.

The point on or off the target at which the weapon is aimed is called the point of aim.

The straight line that runs from the shooter's eye through the middle of the sight slot (level with its edges) and the top of the front sight to the aiming point is called the aiming line.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of sight is called the angle of aim.

The angle enclosed between the line of sight and the horizon of the weapon is called the elevation angle of the target. The target's elevation angle is considered positive (+) when the target is above the weapon's horizon, and negative (-) when the target is below the weapon's horizon. The elevation angle of the target can be determined using instruments or using the thousandth formula.

The distance from the departure point to the intersection of the trajectory with the aiming line is called the aiming range.

The shortest distance from any point of the trajectory to the line of sight is called the excess of the trajectory over the line of sight.

The straight line connecting the departure point with the target is called the target line. The distance from the departure point to the target along the target line is called the slant range. When firing direct fire, the target line practically coincides with the aiming line, and the slant range with the aiming range.

The intersection point of the trajectory with the target surface (ground, obstacles) is called the meeting point.

The angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory and the tangent to the target surface (ground, obstacles) at the meeting point is called the meeting angle. The smaller of the adjacent angles, measured from 0 to 90°, is taken as the meeting angle.

The trajectory of a bullet in the air has the following properties:

The descending branch is shorter and steeper than the ascending one;

The angle of incidence is greater than the angle of throw;

The final speed of the bullet is less than the initial one;

The lowest speed of the bullet when firing at high angles of throw - on the descending branch of the trajectory, and when firing at small angles of throw - at the point of impact;

The time of movement of a bullet along the ascending branch of the trajectory is less than along the descending one;

The trajectory of a spinning bullet due to the drop of the bullet under the action of gravity and derivation is a line of double curvature.

Grenade trajectory (side view)

The trajectory of a grenade in the air can be divided into two sections: active - the flight of a grenade under the action of a reactive force (from the point of departure to the point where the action of the reactive force stops) and passive - the flight of a grenade by inertia. The shape of the trajectory of a grenade is about the same as that of a bullet.

Trajectory shape

The shape of the trajectory depends on the magnitude of the elevation angle. With an increase in the elevation angle, the height of the trajectory and the full horizontal range of the bullet (grenade) increase, but this occurs up to a known limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory height continues to increase and the total horizontal range begins to decrease.

Angle of greatest range, flat, overhead and conjugate trajectories

The angle of elevation at which the full horizontal range of the bullet (grenade) becomes the greatest is called the angle of greatest range. The value of the angle of greatest range for bullets of various types of weapons is about 35 °.

Trajectories obtained at elevation angles smaller than the angle of greatest range are called flat. Trajectories obtained at elevation angles greater than the angle of greatest range are called hinged.

When firing from the same weapon (at the same initial speeds), you can get two trajectories with the same horizontal range: flat and mounted. Trajectories that have the same horizontal range at different elevation angles are called conjugate.

When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, only flat trajectories are used. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the extent of the terrain, the target can be hit with one sight setting (the less impact on the results of shooting is caused by errors in determining the sight setting); this is practical value flat trajectory.

Exceeding the trajectory of a bullet above the aiming point

The flatness of the trajectory is characterized by its greatest exceeding the line of sight. At a given range, the trajectory is all the more flat, the less it rises above the aiming line. In addition, the flatness of the trajectory can be judged by the magnitude of the angle of incidence: the trajectory is the more flat, the smaller the angle of incidence.

Internal and external ballistics.

Shot and its periods. The initial speed of the bullet.

Lesson number 5.

"RULES FOR SHOOTING FROM SMALL ARMS"

1. Shot and its periods. The initial speed of the bullet.

Internal and external ballistics.

2. Shooting rules.

Ballistics is the science of the movement of bodies thrown in space. It deals mainly with the study of the movement of projectiles fired from firearms, rocket projectiles and ballistic missiles.

A distinction is made between internal ballistics, which studies the movement of a projectile in a gun channel, as opposed to external ballistics, which studies the movement of a projectile as it leaves the gun.

We will consider ballistics as the science of the movement of a bullet when fired.

Internal ballistics is a science that studies the processes that take place when a shot is fired and, in particular, when a bullet moves along a barrel bore.

A shot is the ejection of a bullet from the bore of a weapon by the energy of gases formed during the combustion of a powder charge.

When fired from small arms, the following phenomena occur. From the impact of the striker on the primer of a live cartridge sent into the chamber, the percussion composition of the primer explodes and a flame forms, which through the hole in the bottom of the sleeve penetrates to the powder charge and ignites it. During the combustion of a powder (or so-called combat) charge, a large amount of highly heated gases are formed, which create high pressure in the barrel bore on the bottom of the bullet, the bottom and walls of the sleeve, as well as on the walls of the barrel and the bolt. As a result of the pressure of gases on the bullet, it moves from its place and crashes into the rifling; rotating along them, it moves along the bore with a continuously increasing speed and is thrown outward in the direction of the axis of the bore. The pressure of gases on the bottom of the sleeve causes recoil - the movement of the weapon (barrel) back. From the pressure of gases on the walls of the sleeve and the barrel, they are stretched (elastic deformation) and the sleeves, tightly pressed against the chamber, prevent the breakthrough of powder gases towards the bolt. At the same time, when fired, an oscillatory movement (vibration) of the barrel occurs and it heats up.

During the combustion of a powder charge, approximately 25-30% of the energy released is spent on communicating the bullet forward movement(main job); 15-25% of energy - for secondary work (cutting and overcoming the friction of a bullet when moving along the bore, heating the walls of the barrel, cartridge case and bullet; moving the moving parts of the weapon, gaseous and unburned parts of gunpowder); about 40% of the energy is not used and is lost after the bullet leaves the bore.

The shot passes in a very short period of time: 0.001‑0.06 seconds. When fired, four periods are distinguished:

Preliminary;

First (or main);

Third (or period of aftereffect of gases).

Preliminary period lasts from the beginning of the burning of the powder charge to the complete cutting of the shell of the bullet into the rifling of the bore. During this period, the gas pressure is created in the barrel bore, which is necessary in order to move the bullet from its place and overcome the resistance of its shell to cutting into the rifling of the barrel. This pressure (depending on the rifling device, the weight of the bullet and the hardness of its shell) is called forcing pressure and reaches 250-500 kg / cm 2. It is assumed that the combustion of the powder charge in this period occurs in a constant volume, the shell cuts into the rifling instantly, and the movement of the bullet begins immediately when the forcing pressure is reached in the bore.

First (main) period lasts from the beginning of the movement of the bullet until the moment of complete combustion of the powder charge. At the beginning of the period, when the speed of the bullet along the bore is still low, the amount of gases grows faster than the volume of the bullet space (the space between the bottom of the bullet and the bottom of the case), the gas pressure rises rapidly and reaches its highest value. This pressure is called maximum pressure. It is created in small arms when a bullet travels 4-6 cm of the path. Then, due to the rapid increase in the speed of the bullet, the volume of the bullet space increases faster than the influx of new gases and the pressure begins to fall, by the end of the period it is equal to approximately 2/3 of the maximum pressure. The speed of the bullet is constantly increasing and by the end of the period reaches 3/4 of the initial speed. The powder charge completely burns out shortly before the bullet leaves the bore.

Second period lasts from the moment of complete combustion of the powder charge until the moment the bullet leaves the barrel. With the beginning of this period, the influx of powder gases stops, however, highly compressed and heated gases expand and, putting pressure on the bullet, increases its speed. The speed of the bullet at the exit from the bore ( muzzle velocity) is slightly less than the initial speed.

initial speed called the speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel, i.e. at the time of its departure from the bore. It is measured in meters per second (m/s). The initial speed of caliber bullets and projectiles is 700‑1000 m/s.

The value of the initial speed is one of the most important characteristics combat properties of weapons. For the same bullet an increase in the initial speed leads to an increase in the flight range, penetrating and lethal action of the bullet, as well as to reduce the influence external conditions for her flight.

Bullet penetration is characterized by its kinetic energy: the depth of penetration of a bullet into an obstacle of a certain density.

When firing from AK74 and RPK74, a bullet with a steel core of 5.45 mm cartridge pierces:

o steel sheets with thickness:

2 mm at a distance of up to 950 m;

3 mm - up to 670 m;

5 mm - up to 350 m;

o steel helmet (helmet) - up to 800 m;

o earthen barrier 20-25 cm - up to 400 m;

o pine beams 20 cm thick - up to 650 m;

o brickwork 10-12 cm - up to 100 m.

Bullet lethality characterized by its energy (live force of impact) at the moment of meeting with the target.

Bullet energy is measured in kilogram-force-meters (1 kgf m is the energy required to do the work of lifting 1 kg to a height of 1 m). To inflict damage on a person, an energy equal to 8 kgf m is needed, to inflict the same defeat on an animal - about 20 kgf m. The bullet energy of the AK74 at 100 m is 111 kgf m, and at 1000 m it is 12 kgf m; the lethal effect of the bullet is maintained up to a range of 1350 m.

The value of the muzzle velocity of a bullet depends on the length of the barrel, the mass of the bullet and the properties of the powder. The longer the stem, the more time powder gases act on the bullet and the greater the initial velocity. With a constant barrel length and a constant mass of the powder charge, the initial velocity is greater, the smaller the mass of the bullet.

Some types of small arms, especially short-barreled ones (for example, the Makarov pistol), do not have a second period, because. complete combustion of the powder charge by the time the bullet leaves the bore does not occur.

The third period (the period of aftereffect of gases) lasts from the moment the bullet leaves the bore until the moment the action of the powder gases on the bullet ceases. During this period, powder gases flowing out of the bore at a speed of 1200-2000 m/s continue to act on the bullet and give it additional speed. The bullet reaches its greatest (maximum) speed at the end of the third period at a distance of several tens of centimeters from the muzzle of the barrel.

Hot powder gases escaping from the barrel after the bullet, when they meet with air, cause shock wave, which is the source of the sound of the shot. The mixing of hot powder gases (among which there are oxides of carbon and hydrogen) with atmospheric oxygen causes a flash, observed as a shot flame.

The pressure of the powder gases acting on the bullet ensures that it is given translational speed, as well as rotational speed. The pressure acting in the opposite direction (on the bottom of the sleeve) creates a recoil force. The movement of a weapon under the influence of recoil force is called bestowal. When shooting from small arms, the recoil force is felt in the form of a push to the shoulder, arm, acts on the installation or the ground. The recoil energy is greater than more powerful weapon. For hand-held small arms, the recoil usually does not exceed 2 kg / m and is perceived by the shooter painlessly.

Rice. 1. Throwing the muzzle of the weapon barrel up when fired

as a result of the action of recoil.

The recoil action of a weapon is characterized by the amount of speed and energy that it has when moving backward. The recoil speed of the weapon is about as many times less than the initial speed of the bullet, how many times the bullet is lighter than the weapon.

When firing from automatic weapons, the device of which is based on the principle of using recoil energy, part of it is spent on communicating movement to moving parts and reloading weapons. Therefore, the recoil energy when fired from such a weapon is less than when fired from non-automatic weapons or from automatic weapons, the device of which is based on the principle of using the energy of powder gases discharged through holes in the barrel wall.

The pressure force of powder gases (recoil force) and the recoil resistance force (butt stop, handles, weapon center of gravity, etc.) are not located on the same straight line and are directed in opposite directions. The resulting dynamic pair of forces leads to the angular displacement of the weapon. Deviations can also occur due to the influence of the action of small arms automation and the dynamic bending of the barrel as the bullet moves along it. These reasons lead to the formation of an angle between the direction of the axis of the bore before the shot and its direction at the moment the bullet leaves the bore - departure angle. The magnitude of the deviation of the muzzle of the barrel of a given weapon is the greater, than more shoulder this pair of forces.

In addition, when fired, the barrel of the weapon makes an oscillatory movement - it vibrates. As a result of vibration, the muzzle of the barrel at the moment the bullet takes off can also deviate from its original position in any direction (up, down, right, left). The value of this deviation increases with improper use of the firing stop, contamination of the weapon, etc. The departure angle is considered positive when the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure is higher than its position before the shot, negative when it is lower. The value of the departure angle is given in the firing tables.

The influence of the departure angle on firing for each weapon is eliminated when bringing him to a normal fight (see 5.45mm Kalashnikov manual... - Chapter 7). However, in case of violation of the rules for laying the weapon, using the stop, as well as the rules for caring for the weapon and saving it, the value of the launch angle and the weapon's combat change.

In order to reduce the harmful effect of recoil on the results in some samples of small arms (for example, the Kalashnikov assault rifle), special devices are used - compensators.

Muzzle brake-compressor is a special device on the muzzle of the barrel, acting on which, the powder gases after the bullet takes off, reduce the recoil speed of the weapon. In addition, the gases flowing out of the bore, hitting the walls of the compensator, somewhat lower the muzzle of the barrel to the left and down.

In the AK74, the muzzle brake compensator reduces recoil by 20%.

1.2. external ballistics. Bullet flight path

External ballistics is a science that studies the movement of a bullet in the air (i.e. after the cessation of the action of powder gases on it).

Having flown out of the bore under the action of powder gases, the bullet moves by inertia. In order to determine how the bullet moves, it is necessary to consider the trajectory of its movement. trajectory called the curved line described by the center of gravity of the bullet during flight.

A bullet flying through the air is subjected to two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes it to gradually decrease, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet and tends to overturn it. As a result of the action of these forces, the bullet's flight speed gradually decreases, and its trajectory is an unevenly curved curve in shape.

Air resistance to the flight of a bullet is caused by the fact that air is an elastic medium, therefore, part of the energy of the bullet is expended in this medium, which is caused by three main reasons:

Air friction

The formation of swirls

formation of a ballistic wave.

The resultant of these forces is the air resistance force.

Rice. 2. Formation of air resistance force.

Rice. 3. The action of the force of air resistance on the flight of a bullet:

CG - center of gravity; CS is the center of air resistance.

Air particles in contact with a moving bullet create friction and reduce the speed of the bullet. The air layer adjacent to the surface of the bullet, in which the movement of particles changes depending on the speed, is called the boundary layer. This layer of air, flowing around the bullet, breaks away from its surface and does not have time to immediately close behind the bottom.

A discharged space is formed behind the bottom of the bullet, as a result of which a pressure difference appears on the head and bottom parts. This difference creates a force directed in the direction opposite to the movement of the bullet, and reduces the speed of its flight. Air particles, trying to fill the rarefaction formed behind the bullet, create a vortex.

The bullet collides with air particles during flight and causes them to oscillate. As a result, the air density increases in front of the bullet and a sound wave is formed. Therefore, the flight of a bullet is accompanied by a characteristic sound. When the speed of the bullet is less than the speed of sound, the formation of these waves has little effect on its flight, because. The waves travel faster than the speed of the bullet. At a bullet flight speed greater than the speed of sound, a wave of highly compacted air is created from the incursion of sound waves against each other - a ballistic wave that slows down the speed of the bullet, because. the bullet spends some of its energy creating this wave.

The effect of the force of air resistance on the flight of a bullet is very large: it causes a decrease in speed and range. For example, a bullet at an initial speed of 800 m/s in airless space would fly to a distance of 32,620 m; the flight range of this bullet in the presence of air resistance is only 3900 m.

The magnitude of the air resistance force mainly depends on:

§ bullet speed;

§ the shape and caliber of the bullet;

§ from the surface of the bullet;

§ air density

and increases with an increase in the speed of the bullet, its caliber and air density.

At supersonic bullet speeds, when the main cause of air resistance is the formation of an air seal in front of the head (ballistic wave), bullets with an elongated pointed head are advantageous.

Thus, the force of air resistance reduces the speed of the bullet and overturns it. As a result of this, the bullet begins to “tumble”, the air resistance force increases, the flight range decreases and its effect on the target decreases.

The stabilization of the bullet in flight is ensured by giving the bullet a rapid rotational movement around its axis, as well as by the tail of the grenade. Departure rotation speed rifled weapons is: bullets 3000-3500 rpm, turning feathered grenades 10-15 rpm. Due to the rotational movement of the bullet, the effect of air resistance and gravity, the bullet deviates into right side from a vertical plane drawn through the axis of the bore, - firing plane. The deviation of a bullet from it when flying in the direction of rotation is called derivation.

Rice. 4. Derivation (view of the trajectory from above).

As a result of the action of these forces, the bullet flies in space along an unevenly curved curve called trajectory.

Let's continue consideration of elements and definitions of a trajectory of a bullet.

Rice. 5. Trajectory elements.

The center of the muzzle of a barrel is called departure point. The departure point is the start of the trajectory.

The horizontal plane passing through the departure point is called weapon horizon. In the drawings depicting the weapon and the trajectory from the side, the horizon of the weapon appears as a horizontal line. The trajectory crosses the horizon of the weapon twice: at the point of departure and at the point of impact.

pointed weapons , is called elevation line.

The vertical plane passing through the line of elevation is called shooting plane.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the horizon of the weapon is called elevation angle. If this angle is negative, then it is called angle of declination (decrease).

A straight line that is a continuation of the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure , is called throw line.

The angle enclosed between the line of throw and the horizon of the weapon is called throw angle.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of throw is called departure angle.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon is called drop point.

The angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon is called angle of incidence.

The distance from the point of departure to the point of impact is called full horizontal range.

The speed of the bullet at the point of impact is called final speed.

The time it takes for a bullet to travel from point of departure to point of impact is called total flight time.

The highest point of the trajectory is called the top of the path.

The shortest distance from the top of the trajectory to the horizon of the weapon is called path height.

The part of the trajectory from the departure point to the top is called ascending branch, the part of the trajectory from the top to the point of fall is called descending branch of the trajectory.

The point on the target (or outside it) at which the weapon is aimed is called aiming point (TP).

The straight line from the shooter's eye to the aiming point is called aiming line.

The distance from the departure point to the intersection of the trajectory with the aiming line is called target range.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of sight is called aiming angle.

The angle enclosed between the line of sight and the horizon of the weapon is called target elevation angle.

The line joining the departure point with the target is called target line.

The distance from the departure point to the target along the target line is called slant range. When firing direct fire, the target line practically coincides with the aiming line, and the slant range - with the aiming range.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the surface of the target (ground, obstacles) is called meeting point.

The angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory and the tangent to the surface of the target (ground, obstacles) at the meeting point is called meeting angle.

The shape of the trajectory depends on the magnitude of the elevation angle. As the elevation angle increases, the height of the trajectory and the total horizontal range of the bullet increases. But this happens to a certain limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory height continues to increase and the total horizontal range begins to decrease.

The angle of elevation at which the full horizontal range of the bullet is greatest is called farthest angle(the value of this angle is about 35°).

There are flat and mounted trajectories:

1. flat- called the trajectory obtained at elevation angles smaller than the angle of greatest range.

2. hinged- called the trajectory obtained at elevation angles of a large angle of greatest range.

Flat and hinged trajectories obtained by firing from the same weapon at the same initial speed and having the same total horizontal range are called - conjugate.

Rice. 6. Angle of greatest range,

flat, hinged and conjugate trajectories.

The trajectory is flatter if it rises less above the line of the target, and the smaller the angle of incidence. The flatness of the trajectory affects the value of the range of a direct shot, as well as the amount of affected and dead space.

When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, only flat trajectories are used. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the extent of the terrain the target can be hit with one sight setting (the less impact on the results of shooting has an error in determining the sight setting): this is the practical significance of the trajectory.

initial speed- called the speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel.

For the initial speed, the conditional speed is taken, which is slightly more than the muzzle and less than the maximum. It is determined empirically with subsequent calculations. The value of the initial velocity of the bullet is indicated in the firing tables and in the combat characteristics of the weapon.

The initial speed is one of the most important characteristics of the combat properties of weapons. With an increase in the initial speed, the range of the bullet, the range of a direct shot, the lethal and penetrating effect of the bullet increases, and the influence of external conditions on its flight also decreases.

The value of the muzzle velocity depends on the length of the barrel; bullet mass; mass, temperature and humidity of the powder charge, the shape and size of the powder grains and loading density.

The longer the barrel, the longer the powder gases act on the bullet and the greater the initial velocity.

With a constant barrel length and a constant mass of the powder charge, the initial velocity is greater, the smaller the mass of the bullet.

A change in the mass of the powder charge leads to a change in the amount of powder gases, and, consequently, to a change in the maximum pressure in the bore and the initial velocity of the bullet. The greater the mass of the powder charge, the greater the maximum pressure and muzzle velocity of the bullet.

The length of the barrel and the mass of the powder charge increase during the design of weapons to the most rational sizes.

With an increase in the temperature of the powder charge, the burning rate of the powder increases, and therefore the maximum pressure and initial speed increase. As the charge temperature decreases, the initial speed decreases. An increase (decrease) in initial velocity causes an increase (decrease) in the range of the bullet. In this regard, it is necessary to take into account range corrections for air and charge temperature (charge temperature is approximately equal to air temperature).

With an increase in the humidity of the powder charge, its burning rate and the initial speed of the bullet decrease.

The shape and size of gunpowder have a significant impact on the burning rate of the powder charge, and hence on the muzzle velocity of the bullet. They are selected accordingly when designing weapons.

Hot powder gases flowing from the barrel after the projectile, when they meet with air, cause a shock wave, which is the source of the sound of the shot. The mixing of hot powder gases with atmospheric oxygen causes a flash observed as a shot flame.

Internal and external ballistics.

Like any science, ballistics has grown on the basis of human practical activity. Already in primitive society, in connection with the needs of hunting, people accumulated a whole range of knowledge about throwing stones, spears and darts. The highest achievement of that period was the boomerang, a relatively complex weapon that, after being thrown, either hit the target or, in case of a miss, returned back to the hunter. Starting from the period when hunting ceased to be the main means of obtaining food, the issues of throwing certain "shells" began to develop in connection with the needs of warfare. This period includes the appearance of catapults and ballistas. Ballistics, as a science, received its main development as a result of the appearance of firearms, relying on the achievements of a number of other sciences - physics, chemistry, mathematics, meteorology, aerodynamics, etc.

Currently, ballistics can be distinguished: ∙ internal, studying the movement of a projectile under the action of powder gases, as well as all the phenomena that accompany this movement; ∙ external, studying the movement of a projectile after the action of powder gases on it ceases.

Internal ballistics studies the phenomena occurring in the bore of a weapon during a shot, the movement of a projectile along the bore and the nature of the increase in the speed of the projectile both inside the bore and during the aftereffect of gases. Internal ballistics deals with the study of the most rational use the energy of the powder charge during the shot.

The solution to this issue is the main task of internal ballistics: how to impart a certain initial velocity (V 0) to a projectile of a given weight and caliber, provided that the maximum gas pressure in the barrel (R m ) did not exceed the specified value.

The solution of the main problem of internal ballistics is divided into two parts:

the first task is to derive mathematical dependencies for the combustion of gunpowder;

External ballistics called the science that studies the movement of a projectile after the cessation of the action of powder gases on it .

Having taken off from the bore under the action of powder gases, the projectile moves in the air by inertia. The line described by the center of gravity of the movement of the projectile during its flight is called trajectory. A bullet (grenade) when flying in the air is subject to the action of two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes the bullet (grenade) to gradually lower, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet (grenade) and tends to overturn it. As a result of the action of these forces, the flight speed gradually decreases, and the flight path is an unevenly curved curved line.

In order for a bullet (grenade) to reach the target and hit it or the desired point on it, it is necessary to give the axis of the bore a certain position in space (in the horizontal and vertical planes) before firing.

Giving the axis of the bore the required position in the horizontal plane is called horizontal guidance.

Giving the axis of the bore the required position in the vertical plane is called vertical guidance.

Aiming is carried out with the help of aiming devices and aiming mechanisms and is carried out in two stages.

First, a scheme of angles is built on the weapon with the help of sighting devices, corresponding to the distance to the target and corrections for various conditions firing (the first stage of aiming). Then, with the help of guidance mechanisms, the angle scheme built on the weapon is combined with the scheme determined on the ground (the second stage of aiming).

If horizontal and vertical aiming is carried out directly on the target or on an auxiliary point near the target, then such aiming is called straight.

When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, direct fire is used. performed with a single sighting line.

The straight line that connects the middle of the sight slot to the top of the front sight is called the aiming line.

To carry out aiming using an open sight, it is necessary first, by moving the rear sight (slot of the sight), to give the aiming line such a position in which between this line and the axis of the barrel bore, an aiming angle corresponding to the distance to the target is formed in the vertical plane, and in the horizontal plane an angle equal to lateral correction, depending on the speed of the crosswind or the speed of the lateral movement of the target. Then, by directing the aiming line at the target (changing the position of the barrel with the help of pickup mechanisms or by moving the weapon itself, if there are no pickup mechanisms), give the axis of the bore the necessary position in space. In weapons with a permanent rear sight (for example, a Makarov pistol), the required position of the axis of the bore in the vertical plane is given by choosing the aiming point corresponding to the distance to the target, and directing the aiming line to this point. In weapons that have a sight slot that is fixed in the lateral direction (for example, a Kalashnikov assault rifle), the required position of the bore axis in the horizontal plane is given by selecting the aiming point corresponding to the side correction and directing the aiming line into it.

Aiming (aiming) using an open sight:

(If necessary, answer questions)Question #2.