1.8. Origin and evolution of endo- and exotrophy Trophics and the origin of life In the light of modern knowledge, it is clear that the mechanisms of endotrophy and exotrophy are related, and not opposite, as previously thought, when exotrophy was considered as heterotrophy, but

9.5. Structure, origin and evolution of cycles and trophic chains Since its inception, life has been formed as a chain process. As for trophic chains, as we mentioned earlier, they were formed "from the end", i.e. from decomposers - organisms

Origin of life As already noted, the theory of biochemical evolution is the only theory within the framework of scientific methodology on the issue of the origin of life. It was first proposed by A. I. Oparin (1894–1980) in 1924. Subsequently, the author repeatedly introduced into it

Australopithecus bones were first discovered in the Kalahari Desert (South Africa) in 1924, and then in East and Central Africa. They are the probable ancestors of the genus People.

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  Because of the complexities of morphological division within the family Hominidae, and to better understand the evolutionary development of hominids, scientists have identified large group fossil primates - australopithecines, or australopithecines, where besides the genus itself Australopithecus, includes other genera. As a result, in the literature australopithecines can be considered both in the narrow (genus) and broad sense of the word (evolutionary group). In this context, modern paleoanthropology conditionally divides Australopithecus into three groups:

  • early australopithecines (3.9-7.0 mya)
  • gracile australopithecines (1.8-3.9 million years ago)
  • massive australopithecines (0.9-2.6 mya)

  Early Australopithecus includes one species of the genus Australopithecus - Australopithecus anamensis(Leakey, Feibel, McDougal et Walker, 1995) and Sahelanthropus tchadensis(Brunet at al., 2002), Orrorin tugenensis(Senut, Pickford, Gommery, Mein, Cheboi et Coppens, 2001) and Ardipithecus ramidus(White, Suwa et Asfaw, 1995). Gracile australopithecines include the following species: Australopithecus afarensis(Johanson, White et Coppens, 1978), Australopithecus bahrelghazali(Brunet, Beauvilain, Coppens, Heintz, Moutaye et Pilbeam, 1996), Australopithecus Africanus(Dart, 1925), Australopithecus garhi(Asfaw, White, Lovejoy, Latimer, Simpson et Suwa, 1999), Australopithecus sediba(Berger, 2010), as well as Kenyanthropus platyops(Leakey, Spoor, Brown, Gathogo, Kiarie, Leakey et McDougalls, 2001). The last group, due to its specific anatomy, is distinguished into a separate genus - Paranthropus, which has three types: Paranthropus aethiopicus(Arambourg et Coppens, 1968), Paranthropus boisei(Leakey, 1959) and Paranthropus Robustus(Broom, 1939).

  There are several other controversial species that can be assigned to the Australopithecus group, but this is beyond the scope of this article.

  Origin, biology and behavior

  Australopithecus lived from the Pliocene, approximately 4 mya, to less than a million years ago. On the time scale, 3 long epochs of the main species are clearly traced, approximately one million years per species. Most species of Australopithecus were omnivorous, but there were subspecies that specialized in plant foods. The ancestor of the main species was most likely the species anamensis, and the first main species known on this moment became kind afarensis which lasted approximately 1 million years. Apparently, these creatures were nothing more than monkeys, moving like a human on two legs, albeit hunched over. Perhaps, in the end, they knew how to use improvised stones to crack, for example, nuts. It is believed that afarensis in the end it was divided into two subspecies: the first branch went to humanization and Homo habilis, the second continued to improve in Australopithecus, forming the new kind Africanus. At Africanus slightly less developed limbs than afarensis, but on the other hand, they learned to use improvised stones, sticks and sharp fragments of bones, and, in turn, after another million years, they formed two new higher and last known subspecies of Australopithecus boisei And robustus, which lasted until 900 thousand years BC. e. and already could independently produce the simplest bone and wooden tools. Despite this, most Australopithecus was included in food chain more progressive people who overtook them in development along other branches of evolution, and with whom they intersected in time, although the duration of their joint existence indicates that there were also periods of peaceful joint existence.

  In terms of taxonomy, Australopithecus belongs to the family of hominids (which also includes humans and modern large apes). The question of whether any Australopithecus were the ancestors of humans, or whether they represent a "sister" group in relation to humans, has not been fully clarified.

  Anatomy

  Template: Biophoto Australopithecus brings people closer underdevelopment jaws, the absence of large protruding fangs, a grasping hand with a developed thumb, a supporting foot and a pelvic structure adapted for upright walking. The cerebrum is relatively large (530 cm³), but in structure it differs little from the brain of modern apes. In terms of volume, it was no more than 35% of the average size of the brain of a modern person. The dimensions of the body were also small, no more than 120-140 cm in height, the physique was slender. It is assumed that the difference in size between male and female Australopithecus was greater than that of modern hominins. For example, in modern humans, men are on average only 15% larger than women, while in Australopithecus they could be 50% taller and heavier, which gives rise to discussions about the fundamental possibility of such a strong sexual dimorphism in this genus of hominids. One of the main characteristic features for Paranthropus is a bony arrow-shaped crest on the skull, which is inherent in males of modern gorillas, therefore it cannot be completely ruled out that the robust / Paranthropic forms of Australopithecus are males, and the gracile forms are females, an alternative explanation may be the assignment of forms of different sizes to different types or subspecies.

  Development of forms within the genus

  The main candidate for the ancestor of Australopithecus is the genus Ardipithecus. At the same time, the oldest of the representatives of the new genus, Australopithecus anamensis, descended directly from Ardipithecus ramidus 4.4-4.1 million years ago, and 3.6 million years ago gave rise to Australopithecus afarensis, to which the first found by modern people belongs - “Lucy ". With the discovery in 1985 of the so-called "black skull", which was very similar to Paranthropus boisei, with a characteristic bone crest, but at the same time was 2.5 million older, official uncertainty appeared in the pedigree of Australopithecus, because although the results of the analyzes can vary greatly depending on many circumstances and the environment where the skull was located, and, as usual, will for decades to be rechecked dozens of times, but at the moment it turns out that Paranthropus boisei could not come from Australopithecus africanus, because he lived before them, and at least lived at the same time as Australopithecus afarensis, and, accordingly, also could not come from them, unless, of course, we take into account the hypothesis that the parathropic forms of Australopithecus and Australopithecus are males and females of the same species.

  Place in hominin evolution

  Template:Biophoto Genus Australopithecus thought to be the ancestor of at least two groups of hominids: Paranthropus and humans. Although Australopithecus did not differ much from monkeys in terms of intelligence, they were upright, while most monkeys are quadrupedal. Thus, bipedalism preceded the development of intelligence in humans, and not vice versa, as previously assumed.

  How Australopithecus moved to upright posture is not yet clear. Among the reasons considered are the need to grasp objects such as food and babies with the front paws and scan the surroundings over tall grass for food or to spot danger in time. It is also suggested that the common ancestors of upright hominids (including humans and australopithecines) lived in shallow water and fed on small aquatic inhabitants, and upright walking was formed as an adaptation to movement in shallow water. This version is supported by a number of anatomical, physiological and ethological features, in particular, the ability of people to arbitrarily hold their breath, which not all swimming animals are capable of.

  According to genetics, signs of upright walking appeared in some extinct species of monkeys about 6 million years ago, during the era of divergence between humans and chimpanzees. This means that not only the Australopithecus themselves, but also the species that was their ancestor, for example, Ardipithecus, could already be upright. Perhaps upright walking was an element of adaptation to life in the trees. Modern orangutans use all four paws to move only along thick branches, while they either cling to thinner branches from below or walk along them on their hind legs, preparing to cling to other higher branches with their front legs or balancing for stability. This tactic allows them to get close to fruits that are far from the trunk, or jump from one tree to another. Climate change that occurred 11-12 million years ago led to a reduction forest areas in Africa and the emergence of large open spaces, which could push the ancestors of Australopithecus to the transition to upright walking on the ground. In contrast, the ancestors of modern chimpanzees discovered a new species of Australopithecus, A. sediba who lived in Africa less than two million years ago. Although, according to certain morphological features, it is closer to people than the more ancient species of Australopithecus, which gave reason to its discoverers to declare it a transitional form from Australopithecus to humans, at the same time, apparently, the first representatives of the genus Homo, such as the Rudolf man, which excludes the possibility that this species of Australopithecus could be the ancestor of modern man.

  Most species of Australopithecus used tools no more than modern apes. Chimpanzees and gorillas are known to be able to crack nuts with stones, use sticks to extract termites, and use clubs for hunting. How often Australopithecus hunted is debatable, as their fossil remains are rarely associated with the remains of dead animals.

  Introduction

  1. general characteristics australopithecines

  2. Varieties of Australopithecus

  Conclusion

  Bibliography

  
  

  Introduction

  The development of the science of the origin of man was constantly stimulated by the search for a "transitional link" between man and ape, more precisely, his ancient ancestor. For a long time, the Pithecanthropes ("monkey-men") of Indonesia, first discovered by the Dutch doctor E. Dubois in Java at the end of the last century, were considered as such a transitional form. With a completely modern locomotor apparatus, Pithecanthropes had a primitive skull and brain mass, approximately 1.5 times less than that of a modern person of the same height. However, this group of hominids turns out to be rather late. Most of finds in Java has an antiquity of 0.8 to 0.5 million years ago, and the earliest known reliable Pithecanthropus of the Old World is still no older than 1.6-1.5 million years ago.

  On the other hand, it follows from the previous review of the finds of Miocene hominids that representatives of the hominid line of evolution have not yet been identified among them paleontologically. It is obvious that the “transitional link” must be sought at the turn of the tertiary and Quaternary periods, during the Pliocene and Pliopleistocene epochs. This is the time of the existence of the oldest bipedal hominids of Australopithecus.

  Hominids are the most highly organized family of great apes. Includes modern man, his predecessors - paleoanthropes and archanthropes, and also, according to most scientists, Australopithecus.

  Some scientists limit the family of hominids to only humans themselves, starting with the archanthropes.

  Supporters of the extended interpretation of the family include two subfamilies in it: Australopithecus and people proper (Homininae) with one genus of man (Homo) and three species - a skilled man (H. habilis), an upright man (H. erectus) and a reasonable man (H. sapiens ).

  Highest value to create a clear idea of ​​the immediate ancestors of the hominin family, there are numerous and well-preserved finds in South Africa(the first was by Raymond Dart in 1924, and the number continues to increase). Now in South and East Africa, several fossil species of anthropomorphic primates have been discovered, which are combined into three genera - Australopithecus, paranthropus and plesianthropes - are distinguished into a subfamily or family of Australopithecus.

  Of the three possible centers of origin of the original human ancestor (Africa, Asia, Europe), the most complete connection between the Miocene and later hominids can be traced in Africa. There are fairly late Miocene great apes in Asia and Europe, but no very ancient hominids. Thus, Africa is most likely the ancestral home of the hominids.

  
  

  1. General characteristics of Australopithecus

  The history of the study of Australopithecus dates back to 1924, with the discovery of the skull of a 3-5 year old hominoid cub in the South-Eastern Transvaal (now South Africa) near Taung. The fossil hominoid received the name of the African Australopithecus - Avstralopitecus africanus Dagt, 1925 (from "avstralis" - southern). In subsequent years, other locations of South African Australopithecus were discovered - in Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, Swartkrans, Kromdraai. Their remains were usually found in caves: they lay in travertine deposits of carbon dioxide sources flowing from limestones, or directly in the rocks of the dolomite strata. Initially, new finds received independent generic designations - plesianthropus (Plesianthropus), paranthropus (Paranthropus), but, according to modern concepts, only one genus Avstralopithecus stands out among the South African Australopithecus with two species: the more ancient ("classical") gracile Australopithecus and the later massive, or paranthropus.

  In 1959 Australopithecus has also been found in East Africa. The first discovery was made by the spouses M. and L. Leakey in the oldest layer of the Olduvai Gorge on the outskirts of the Serengeti plateau in Tanzania. This hominoid, represented by a rather theromorphic skull with crests, was called East African man, since stone artifacts (Zinjanthropus boisei Leakey) were also discovered in the immediate vicinity. Subsequently, the remains of Australopithecus were found in a number of places in East Africa, concentrated mainly in the region of the East African Rift. Usually they are more or less open sites, including areas of grassy forest-steppe.

  To date, the remains of at least 500 individuals are known from the territories of South and East Africa. Australopithecus, apparently, could also be found in other regions of the Old World: for example, the so-called Gigantopithecus from Bilaspur in India or the Javanese meganthrope to some extent resemble massive African Australopithecus. However, the position of these forms of hominoids is not entirely clear. Thus, although the diffusion of Australopithecus into the southern regions of Eurasia cannot be ruled out, their bulk is closely related in their distribution to African continent, where they are found as far south as Hadar in northeastern Africa.

  The main part of the finds of East African Australopithecus dates back to the period from 4 to 1 million years ago, but the oldest bipeds, apparently, appeared here even earlier, 5.5-4.5 million years ago.

  The Australopithecus were a very peculiar group. They appeared about 6-7 million years ago, and the last of them died out only about 900 thousand years ago, during the existence of much more advanced forms. As far as is known, Australopithecus never left Africa, although some finds made on the island of Java are sometimes attributed to this group.

  The complexity of the position of Australopithecus among primates lies in the fact that their structure mosaically combines features that are characteristic of both modern great apes and humans. The Australopithecus skull is similar to that of a chimpanzee. Characterized by large jaws, massive bony ridges for the attachment of chewing muscles, a small brain and a large flattened face. Australopithecus teeth were very large, but the fangs were short, and the details of the structure of the teeth were more human than monkey.

  The skeletal structure of Australopithecus is characterized by a wide low pelvis, relatively long legs and short arms, a grasping hand and a non-grasping foot, and a vertical spine. Such a structure is already almost human, the differences are only in the details of the structure and in small sizes.

  The growth of Australopithecus ranged from a meter to one and a half. It is characteristic that the size of the brain was about 350-550 cm³, that is, like that of modern gorillas and chimpanzees. For comparison, the brain of a modern person has a volume of about 1200-1500 cm³. The brain structure of Australopithecus was also very primitive and differed little from that of a chimp. Already at the stage of Australopithecus, the process of losing the coat probably began. Coming out of the shadow of the forests, our ancestor, in the words of the Soviet anthropologist Ya. Ya. Roginsky, found himself in a “warm coat”, which had to be removed as soon as possible.

  The way of life of Australopithecus, apparently, was unlike that known among modern primates. They lived in tropical forests and savannahs, feeding mainly on plants. However, later Australopithecus hunted antelopes or took prey from large predators - lions and hyenas.

  Australopithecus lived in groups of several individuals and, apparently, constantly roamed the expanses of Africa in search of food. Australopithecus tools were unlikely to be able to manufacture, although they were used for sure. Their hands were very similar to human ones, but the fingers were more curved and narrower. The oldest tools are known from layers in Ethiopia dated 2.7 million years ago, that is, 4 million years after the appearance of Australopithecus. In South Africa, Australopithecus or their immediate descendants used bone fragments to catch termites from termite mounds about 2-1.5 million years ago.

  Australopithecus can be divided into three main groups, in each of which several species are distinguished: early australopithecines - existed from 7 to 4 million years ago, had the most primitive structure. There are several genera and species of early Australopithecus. Gracil Australopithecus - existed from 4 to 2.5 million years ago, had a relatively small size and moderate proportions. Massive Australopithecus - existed from 2.5 to 1 million years ago, were very massively built specialized forms with extremely developed jaws, small front and huge back teeth. Let's consider each of them in more detail.

  2. Varieties of Australopithecus

  The remains of the oldest primates, which can be attributed to the early Australopithecus, were found in the Republic of Chad in Toros Menalla and named Sahelanthropus tchadensis. The whole skull was given the popular name "Tumai". The dating of the finds is about 6-7 million years ago. More numerous finds in Kenya in Tugen Hills date back to 6 million years ago. They were named Orrorin (Orrorin tugenensis). In Ethiopia, in two locations - Alayla and Aramis - numerous bone remains were found, called Ardipithecus (Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba) (about 5.5 million years ago) and Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus (4.4 million years ago). Finds in two locations in Kenya - Kanapoi and Allia Bay - were named Australopithecus anamensis. They date back to 4 million years ago.

  Their growth was not much more than one meter. The brain size was the same as that of a chimpanzee. Early Australopithecus lived in wooded or even swampy places, as well as in forest-steppes.

  Obviously, it is these creatures that are most suitable for the role of the notorious "intermediate link" between the monkey and man. We know almost nothing about their way of life, but every year the number of finds is growing, and knowledge about environment of that distant time are expanding.

  Not much is known about early Australopithecus. Judging by the Sahelanthropus skull, Orrorin femurs, skull fragments, limb bones, and Ardipithecus pelvic remains, early Australopithecus were already upright primates.

  However, judging by the bones of the hands of Orrorin and Australopithecus of Anamus, they retained the ability to climb trees or even were four-legged creatures that leaned on the phalanges of the fingers, like modern chimpanzees and gorillas. The structure of the teeth of early australopithecines is intermediate between monkeys and humans. Perhaps even Sahelanthropus were relatives of gorillas, Ardipithecus - the immediate ancestors of modern chimpanzees, and Anaman australopithecines died out without leaving descendants. The history of the description of the Ardipithecus skeleton is the clearest example of scientific integrity. After all, between its discovery - in 1994. and description - at the end of 2009, 15 years have passed!

  All these long years, an international group of researchers, including the discoverer, Johannes Haile-Selassie, have been working on preserving crumbling bones, reconstructing a skull crushed into a shapeless lump, describing morphological features and searching for a functional interpretation of the smallest details of the structure of bones.

  The scientists did not follow the path of presenting another early sensation to the world, but really deeply and carefully studied the most diverse aspects of the find. To do this, scientists had to explore such subtleties of the comparative anatomy of modern great apes and humans, which until now remained unknown. Naturally, data on a variety of fossil primates and australopithecines were also involved in the comparison.

  Moreover, the geological conditions of the burial of fossil remains, ancient flora and fauna were considered in the most detailed way, which made it possible to reconstruct the habitat of Ardipithecus more reliably than for many later Australopithecus.

  The newly described skeleton of Ardipithecus is a remarkable example of the confirmation of a scientific hypothesis. In his appearance, he perfectly combines the signs of ape and man. In fact, the image that for a century and a half excited the imagination of anthropologists and everyone who cares about our origins has finally become a reality.

  Finds in Aramis are numerous - the remains belong to at least 21 individuals, but the most important is the skeleton of an adult female, from which about 45% of the bones remain (more than from the famous "Lucy" - a female Afar australopithecine from Hadar with antiquity 3.2 million years ago ), including almost the entire skull, although in an extremely deformed state. The individual had a height of about 1.2 m. and could weigh up to 50kg. Significantly, the sexual dimorphism of Ardipithecus was much less pronounced than in chimpanzees and even later australopithecines, that is, males were not much larger than females. The brain volume reached 300-350 cm³ - the same as in Sahelanthropus, but less than usual in chimpanzees. The structure of the skull is rather primitive. Remarkably, in Ardipithecus, the face and dentition do not have the specialized features found in Australopithecus and modern apes. Based on this feature, it has even been suggested that Ardipithecus could be the common ancestors of humans and chimpanzees, or even only the ancestors of chimpanzees, but upright ancestors. That is, chimpanzees could have bipedal progenitors. However, a more thorough study showed that this probability is still minimal.

  The bipedalism of Ardipithecus is quite obvious, given the structure of its pelvis (combining, however, ape and human morphology) - wide, but also rather high, elongated. However, such signs as the length of the arms reaching the knees, the curved phalanges of the fingers, the big toe set far aside and retaining the grasping ability, clearly indicate that these creatures could spend a lot of time in the trees. The authors of the original description emphasize the fact that Ardipithecus lived in fairly closed habitats, with a large number of trees and thickets. In their opinion, such biotopes rule out the classical theory of the formation of bipedalism under conditions of climate cooling and reduction rainforest. O. Lovejoy, based on the weak sexual dimorphism of Ardipithecus, develops his old hypothesis about the development of bipedalism on the basis of social and sexual relationships, without direct connection with climatic and geographic conditions. However, the situation can be viewed differently, because approximately the same conditions that were reconstructed for Aramis were assumed by supporters of the hypothesis of the origin of bipedia in the conditions of displacement of forests by savannahs. It's clear that rainforests could not disappear instantly, and the monkeys could not master the savanna within one or two generations. It is remarkable that this stage has now been studied in such detail using the example of the Ardipithecus of Aramis.

  These creatures could live both in trees and on the ground, climbing branches and walking on two legs, and sometimes, perhaps, even getting down on all fours. They apparently fed on a wide range of plants, both shoots with leaves and fruits, avoiding any specialization, which became the key to future human omnivorousness. It is clear that social structure unknown to us, but the small size of the fangs and weak sexual dimorphism indicate a low level of aggression and weak inter-male competition, apparently less excitability, which resulted in millions of years in the ability of modern man to concentrate, learn, carefully, accurately and smoothly perform labor activity, cooperate, coordinate and coordinate their actions with other members of the group. It is these parameters that distinguish a person from a monkey. It is curious that many morphological features of modern apes and humans are apparently based on behavioral features. This applies, for example, large sizes jaws in chimpanzees, caused not by some specific need for nutrition, but by increased inter-male and intra-group aggressiveness and excitability. It is noteworthy that bonobo pygmy chimpanzees, much friendlier than their common counterparts, have shortened jaws, relatively small fangs, and less pronounced sexual dimorphism.

  Based on a comparative study of Ardipithecus, chimpanzees, gorillas and modern humans, it was concluded that many features of great apes arose independently.

  This applies, for example, to such a specialized feature as moving on bent phalanges of fingers in chimpanzees and gorillas.

  Until now, it was believed that a single line of great apes first separated from the line of hominids, which then split into gorillas and chimpanzees.

  However, chimpanzees are more similar to Ardipithecus than to gorillas in a number of ways, so the separation of the gorilla lineage must have occurred before the specialization for walking on the phalanges of the fingers appeared, because Ardipithecus does not have it. However, this hypothesis has its weaknesses; if desired, the matter can be presented in another way.

  Comparison of Ardipithecus with Sahelanthropus and later Australopithecus once again showed that the evolution of human ancestors was in some jerks.

  General level The development of Sahelanthropus 6-7 million years ago and Ardipithecus 4.4 million years ago is almost the same, while after only 200 thousand years (4.2 million years ago) the Anaman australopithecines developed many new features, which, in turn, are few changed until the time of the appearance of "early Homo" 2.3-2.6 million years ago. Such jumps or turns of evolution were known before, but now we have the opportunity to determine the exact time of one more of them; one can try to explain them by linking them, for example, with climate change.

  One of the most surprising conclusions that can be drawn from the study of Ardipithecus is that man, in many ways, differs from the common ancestor with chimpanzees less than a chimpanzee or a gorilla. And this applies, first of all, to the size of the jaws and the structure of the hand and foot - parts of the body, the structural features of which in humans are most often paid attention to.

  In Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia, fossils of gracile australopithecines called Australopithecus afarensis have been discovered in many locations. This species existed approximately 4 to 2.5 million years ago. The best-known finds are from the Hadar area in the Afar Desert, including a skeleton nicknamed Lucy. Also, in Tanzania, fossilized footprints of erect walking creatures were found in the same layers in which the remains of the Afar australopithecines were found.

  In addition to the Afar australopithecines, other species probably lived in East and North Africa in the time interval of 3-3.5 million years ago. In Kenya, a skull and other fossils have been found at Lomekwi, described as Kenyanthropus platyops. In the Republic of Chad, in Koro Toro (East Africa), a single fragment of the jaw, described as Australopithecus bahrelghazali, was found. In South Africa, in a number of localities - Taung, Sterkfontein and Makapansgat - numerous fossils known as African Australopithecus (Australopithecus africanus) have been found. The first find of Australopithecus belonged to this species - the skull of a cub known as Baby from Taung (R. Dart, 1924). African Australopithecus lived from 3.5 to 2.4 million years ago. The latest gracile Australopithecus - dated to about 2.5 million years ago - was discovered in Ethiopia in Bowri and named Australopithecus gari (Australopithecus garhi).

  From gracile australopithecines, all parts of the skeleton from many individuals are known, therefore, reconstructions of their appearance and lifestyle are very reliable. Gracil Australopithecus were upright creatures about 1-1.5 meters tall. Their gait was somewhat different from that of a human. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Together with a fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these signs can only be a legacy from ancient ancestors.

  During the day, Australopithecus roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening they climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecus lived in small herds or families and were able to travel quite long distances. They ate mainly plant food, and they usually did not make tools, although not far from the bones of Australopithecus gari, scientists found stone tools and antelope bones crushed by them. Also, for the South African Australopithecus (Makapansgat Cave), R. Dart put forward a hypothesis of osteodontokeratic (literally - “bone-dental-horn”) culture. It was assumed that Australopithecus used the bones, horns and teeth of animals as tools. Later studies have shown that most of the wear marks on these bones are the result of gnawing from hyenas and other predators.

  Like the early members of the genus, the gracile australopithecines had an ape-like skull that matched the almost modern rest of the skeleton. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of a monkey in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between a small simian and a very large human.

  Approximately 2.5-2.7 million years ago, new species of hominids arose, which had a large brain and were already attributed to the genus Homo. However, there was another group of late Australopithecus that deviated from the line leading to man - the massive Australopithecus.

  The oldest massive australopithecines are known from Kenya and Ethiopia - Lokalei and Omo. They have dates about 2.5 million years ago and are called Ethiopian Paranthropus (Paranthropus aethiopicus). Later massive australopithecines from East Africa - Olduvai, Koobi-Fora - dating from 2.5 to 1 million years ago are described as Paranthropus Boys (Paranthropus boisei). In South Africa - Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Dreamolen Cave - massive Paranthropus (Paranthropus robustus) are known. Massive paranthropes were the second open view australopithecines.

  When examining the skull of Paranthropus, the huge jaws and large bone ridges that served to attach the chewing muscles are striking. The jaw apparatus reached its maximum development in East African Paranthropus. The first open skull of this species, due to the size of the teeth, even received the nickname "The Nutcracker".

  Paranthropes were large - up to 70 kg in weight - specialized herbivorous creatures that lived along the banks of rivers and lakes in dense thickets. Their way of life was somewhat reminiscent of the way of life of modern gorillas. However, they retained their bipedal gait and may even have been able to make tools. In layers with paranthropes, stone tools and bone fragments were found, with which hominids tore up termite mounds. Also, the hand of these primates was adapted for the manufacture and use of tools.

  The paranthropes "made a bet" on size and herbivory. This led them to ecological specialization and extinction. However, in the same layers with paranthropes, the remains of the first representatives of hominins, the so-called "early Homo" - more progressive hominids with big brain

  
  

  Conclusion

  As studies of recent decades have shown, Australopithecus were the immediate evolutionary predecessors of man. It was from among the progressive representatives of these two-legged fossil primates that about three million years ago, creatures emerged in East Africa who made the first artificial tools, created the oldest Paleolithic culture - the Olduvai, and thereby laid the foundation for the human race.

  
  

  Bibliography

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  3. Bogatenkov D.V., Drobyshevsky S.V. Anthropology / Ed. T.I. Alekseeva. - M., 2005.

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  Bogatenkov D.V., Drobyshevsky S.V. Anthropology / Ed. T.I. Alekseeva. - M., 2005.

  Khomutov A.E. Anthropology. - Rostov n / a.: Phoenix, 2002

  Bunak V.V. Genus Homo, its origin and subsequent evolution. - M., 1980.

  Zubov A.A. On the systematics of Australopithecus. Questions of Anthropology, 1964.

  Australopithecus, on the one hand, is the oldest and most primitive view man, on the other - the most highly organized type of primates. This is a kind of marginal type of creatures in the evolution of the human family. (Hominidae), to which both man and his ape-like ancestors belong. Wilfrid E. Le Gros Clark, professor of anatomy at Oxford University, wrote that Australopithecus are ape-like creatures with small brains and powerful jaws. Based on the proportions of the brain box and the facial bones of the skeleton, it can be established that in terms of the level of development they only slightly differ from modern species anthropoid apes. Separate features of the skull and bones of the limbs, as well as teeth, characteristic of modern and fossil apes, are combined in them with a number of features close to hominids.

  It took about 14 million years for the development of this family, the evolution of the genus Homo lasted even less - about 3 million years. At present, it is customary to single out Hominidae four genera: Ramapithecus (Ramapithecus), paranthropes (Paranthropus) australopithecines (Australopithecus) and human (Homo).

  Ramapithecus were much smaller than modern man, their height did not exceed 110 cm, but, unlike the great apes, they moved in an upright position on two legs. The remains of their skeletons, found in India, China and Kenya, allow us to attribute them to the same evolutionary line along which man developed. This is the most ancient of all known human ancestors; he lived in the forest-steppe belt about 12-14 million years ago.

  The Paranthropus genus developed at about the same time as the Australopithecus, but its representatives were distinguished by their greater growth and more massive physique. They were contemporaries Australopithecus habilis. Parant-rops were forest creatures and ate only plant foods, so they had large teeth with a large working surface. Tools of labor, apparently, were not made.

  Australopithecus stood on the next rung of the ladder leading to man. To date, about 500 remains of this species of early hominids have been discovered. All Australopithecus fossils are found only in Africa. Among them, scientists today distinguish six types 2: Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus(or Australopithecus robustus), Paranthropus boisei(or Australopithecus boisei), Paranthropus aethiopicus(or Australopithecus aethiopicus).

  2 Website: http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/australo_2.htm