Various forms and methods of teaching. Methods, techniques, forms of education
An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students. In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus on the role and definition of the concept of "teaching method". So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that "a method of teaching is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving the problems of education." T.A. Ilyina understands the teaching method as "a way of organizing the cognitive activity of students." In the history of didactics, various classifications of teaching methods have developed, the most common of which are:
briefing;
demonstration;
exercises;
problem solving;
work with the book;
verbal;
visual:
demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;
use of technical means;
watching movies and TV programs;
practical tasks;
trainings;
business games;
analysis and resolution of conflict situations, etc.;
explanatory;
illustrative;
problem;
partial search;
research;
inductive;
deductive;
analytical;
synthetic.
By outward signs activities of the teacher and students:
by source of knowledge:
practical:
according to the degree of activity of students' cognitive activity:
according to the logic of the approach:
Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training to a decisive extent depends on the orientation and internal activity of the trainees, on the nature of their activity, it is precisely the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:
explanatory and illustrative method;
reproductive method;
method of problem presentation;
partial search, or heuristic, method;
research method.
In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory-illustrative teaching method - a method in which students receive knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a "ready" form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. In high school, this method finds the widest application for transferring a large amount of information. Reproductive learning method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a pattern or rule. Here, the activity of trainees is algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, prescriptions, rules in situations similar to those shown in the sample. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing the system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students become witnesses and accomplices scientific research. Both in the past and in the present, this approach is widely used. Partially searchable , or heuristic, learning method consists in organizing an active search for a solution to the cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated), either under the guidance of a teacher, or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The process of thinking acquires a productive character, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves on the basis of work on programs (including computer ones) and teaching aids. Research method of teaching - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks and a brief oral or written briefing, students independently study literature, sources, conduct observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Receptions and teaching aids
In the learning process, the method acts as an ordered way of the interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing educational cognitive activity students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and means. Wherein admission training acts only as an element, an integral part of the teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out the teaching influence (learning process).
Pedagogical means did not immediately become an indispensable component of the pedagogical process. For a long time, traditional teaching methods were based on the word, but "the era of chalk and conversation is over", due to the growth of information, the technologization of society, it becomes necessary to use other teaching aids, such as technical ones. Pedagogical tools include:
educational and laboratory equipment;
educational and production equipment;
didactic technique;
teaching and visual aids;
technical training aids and automated training systems;
computer classes;
organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, examination tickets, task cards, teaching aids, etc.).
Classification of teaching methods
In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional education”, has many features, they act as the basis for classifications. Different authors use different bases for classifying teaching methods. Many classifications have been proposed, based on one or more features. Each of the authors gives arguments to substantiate his classification model. Let's consider some of them. 1. Classification of methods according to the source of transmission and the nature of the perception of information (E.Ya. Golant, E.I. Perovsky). The following signs and methods are distinguished: a) passive perception - they listen and watch (story, lecture, explanations; demonstration); b) active perception - work with a book, visual sources; laboratory method. 2. Classification of methods based on didactic tasks (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov.). The classification is based on the sequence of acquiring knowledge at a particular stage (lesson): a) acquiring knowledge; b) formation of skills and abilities; c) application of acquired knowledge; d) creative activity; e) fastening; f) testing knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Classification of methods by sources of information transfer and knowledge acquisition (N.M. Verzilin, D.O. Lordkinanidze, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.). The methods of this classification are: a) verbal - the teacher's living word, work with a book; b) practical - the study of the surrounding reality (observation, experiment, exercises). 4. Classification of methods according to the type (character) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students. This classification has the following methods: a) explanatory-illustrative (information-reproductive); b) reproductive (boundaries of skill and creativity); c) problematic presentation of knowledge; d) partial search (heuristic); e) research. 5. Classification of methods, combining teaching methods and their corresponding teaching methods or binary (M.I. Makhmutov). This classification is represented by the following methods: a) teaching methods: information-reporting, explanatory, instructive-practical, explanatory-motivating, encouraging; b) teaching methods: executive, reproductive, productive and practical, partially exploratory, exploratory. 6. Classification of methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of its stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control (Yu. K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, labor actions, etc.). .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the whole arsenal of methods for organizing and implementing learning activities for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation for learning), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines the sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didact L. Klinberg. a) Monological methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogue methods: - conversations. 9. The classification of methods by K. Sosnitsky (Poland) suggests the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in the “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: with a book); b) methods of self-acquisition of knowledge, called problem methods, based on creative cognitive activity in the course of problem solving: - the classical problem method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: creating a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; ordering and application of the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the method of chance (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on a small group of students considering a description of a case: students formulating questions to explain this case, searching for an answer, a number of possible solutions, comparing solutions, detecting errors in reasoning, etc.; - the situational method is based on introducing students to a difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, to foresee the consequences of this decision, to find other possible solutions; - idea bank is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, verification, evaluation and selection the right ideas ; - micro-teaching - a method of creative learning of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; for example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in the educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect for accepted norms, promotes cooperation, accustoms both to win and to lose. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they are not widely used in Polish schools); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for the implementation of creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us and create new forms of it: they are associated with the performance of various types of work (for example, wood, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics and etc.), the development of work models (drawing), the formation of approaches to the solution and the choice of the best options, the construction of the model and verification of its functioning, the design of the specified parameters, individual and group assessment of the task. The basis of such a typology of methods is V. Okon's idea of the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely, for understanding the structure of reality, the structure of the world of nature, society and culture that surrounds us. Structural thinking is such thinking that unites the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is associated with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student's mind - from the simplest structures of the most general nature to complex ones. Understanding the basic structures that take place in animate and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of connections between them. 11. Based on the fact that a holistic pedagogical process is provided by a single classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B. T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications, as it were, constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the studied material and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to the methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, "influence on the formation of children's consciousness, internal motives" and incentives for behavior. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational and cognitive process (methods of the stage of perception - primary assimilation; methods of the stage of assimilation - reproduction; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. Two or three dozen more could be added to the series of named classifications of teaching methods. All of them are not without flaws, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and cannot be. The educational process is a dynamic construction, this should be understood. In a living pedagogical process, methods also develop and take on new properties. Combining them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, as this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve a high degree of adequacy to the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, others - a subordinate position. Some methods are more effective, while others are less effective in solving educational problems. We also note that the non-inclusion of at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition of the drug (this reduces or completely changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, educating, encouraging (motivational), control and correctional functions. Knowing the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.
Forms of study
· All-class forms of organizing classes: lesson, conference, seminar, lecture, interview, consultation, laboratory and practical work, program training, credit lesson.
· Group forms of education: group work in the classroom, group laboratory workshop, group creative tasks.
· Individual forms of work in the classroom and at home: work with literature or electronic sources of information, written exercises, performing individual tasks on programming or information technology at a computer, working with training programs at a computer.
Teaching methods
Verbal: lecture, story, conversation.
Visual: illustrations, demon facies, both conventional and computer.
Practical: performing laboratory and practical work, independent work with reference books and literature (regular and electronic), independent written exercises, independent work at a computer.
The choice of the logical nature of the application of teaching methods: ensuring the inductive nature of the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren; ensuring the deductive nature of the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren; the choice of the gnostic nature of the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren; ensuring the reproductive nature of the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren; ensuring the active nature of the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren; ensuring the reproductive and exploratory nature of the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren.
The choice of methods for stimulating educational and cognitive activity: methods for the formation of interest in learning; methods of formation of duty and responsibility in teaching.
The choice of methods of control and self-control during training
Oral control methods: frontal survey, individual survey, computer testing;
Methods of written control: control work; performance of written test tasks; written reports on laboratory and practical work; dictations in informatics.
Methods of laboratory and practical control: control laboratory and practical work; work with control programs.
Methods of self-control: self-control by oral reproduction of what has been learned; self-control through written reproduction of what has been studied; self-control by working with training programs; self-control with computer tests.
Chosen pace of learning: fast; average; delayed. Most of the forms of teaching and methods in the interaction of the teacher with the students do not appear in the so-called pure form. Methods would always interpenetrate each other, characterizing the same interaction between teachers and students from different angles. If we talk about the application of a certain method at the moment, this means that it determines at this stage, making a great contribution to solving the main didactic task.
Organizational forms of education
It is possible to single out the traditionally established forms of class-lesson training sessions: a lesson, a conference, a seminar, a lecture, an interview, a consultation, practical work, programmed training, and a test.
Lesson
The lesson performs the following characteristic didactic functions: communication of knowledge in the amount determined by the curriculum; development of basic skills identified by the curriculum.
The lesson is the main form of organizing training sessions in a school with a constant composition of students and a specific schedule. This form of organization of training sessions allows you to combine the work of the class as a whole and individual groups of students with the individual work of each student. With all the variety of forms of work in the classroom, the leading role remains with the teacher. The teacher plans and organizes the entire educational process in the subject.
Usually, before the lesson, the teacher sets not one, but several tasks: communicating new knowledge to students, developing their thinking and cognitive abilities, forming a scientific worldview, instilling practical skills, repeating previously studied material, checking progress (their knowledge, skills, abilities). Educational tasks.
With all the variety of tasks solved in the lesson, in most cases at each lesson it is possible to single out the main didactic one, which determines the content of the lesson and the methods of work of the teacher with students. In accordance with the main objective of the lesson, the following types are distinguished: a lesson in assimilating new knowledge, a lesson in mastering skills and abilities, a lesson in applying knowledge, skills and abilities, a lesson in generalizing and systematizing knowledge, a lesson in checking and self-testing knowledge, skills and abilities, a combined lesson in its complex main tasks. Conference
The conference is characterized by the following functions: expansion and deepening of knowledge on the studied issues; development of skills to work with sources of information; make a report, report, be able to draw up an abstract, report, message; fostering interest in independent work with various sources of information (conventional and electronic).
Study conferences, like lessons, are held with the whole class during the hours allotted for the subject on the schedule. The leading role is reserved for the teacher. At the conference, as well as at the lesson, the work of the class as a whole is combined with the individual work of students. Conferences prepare students for more complex forms of training - lectures and seminars.
Conferences differ from lessons in that students acquire new knowledge from the literature (from ordinary and electronic) that they worked with in the process of preparing for the conference, and from reports that other students make. The leading role of the teacher at the conference is that he organizes the presentations of students with reports and their discussion, contributes
additions and corrections to the reports, if this is not done during the discussion of the reports by the students. He summarizes the results of the conference, evaluates the work of the class as a whole and individual students who made presentations and additions to them.
The educational value of conferences lies in the fact that in the process of preparing for them, schoolchildren acquire the skills of independent work with literature and electronic sources of information, the application of the acquired knowledge and skills to solve specific problems.
tasks assigned to them.
Holding conferences helps to identify the inclinations and abilities of students, the development of their interest in scientific and technical knowledge.
At the conference, you can take out questions related to history, the application of the theoretical material being studied, the generalization and systematization of knowledge, the principles of the design and operation of computers, etc.
In preparation for the conference, the teacher:
Defines its tasks, the range of issues discussed, the time of the meeting.
Selects literature for students.
Distributes the topics of reports among the students, instructs them about the main stages of work.
Advises students in the course of preparing reports and checks their readiness.
The plan of the conference and the list of references are announced in advance.
Seminar
The seminar performs the following functions: systematization and generalization of knowledge on the studied issue, topic, section (including in several training courses); improving the skills to work with additional sources, to compare the presentation of the same issues in different sources of information; ability to express their point of view, justify it; write abstracts, abstracts, and plans for reports and messages, outline what has been read.
Seminars are organized with the aim of repeating, systematizing and clarifying the acquired knowledge, developing the ability to apply knowledge in solving problems. The leading role of the teacher in this case comes down mainly to explaining the purpose, objectives and plan of the seminar, issuing individual assignments and holding consultations in connection with the preparation of essays and messages by students; all students are given a minimum of literature and questions to which they must answer. Seminar plans usually include:
Main issues to be considered.
Forms of work in the classroom.
When preparing a seminar, a differentiated approach to students is of paramount importance, and during its conduct, ensuring the active participation of all in the discussion of the issues submitted to the seminar.
The following seminars differ in the way they are conducted: interviews, discussion of essays and reports, problem solving, seminars of a mixed and complex nature, the purpose of the latter is to generalize and systematize students' knowledge in related subjects (mathematics, physics).
Lecture
The lecture is characterized by the following functions: creating an overview presentation on a topic or problem; systematization and generalization of knowledge on a topic or section; developing the ability to take notes of a lecture.
Students, listening to lectures, perceive and comprehend the information provided by the teacher. In the lecture presentation of the material, students do not have the opportunity to take the initiative. This is one of the significant shortcomings of this form of education. The disadvantages include the fact that in the process of presentation the teacher, to some extent, is deprived of the opportunity to judge how correctly and well the students understand. Only after completing the presentation, the teacher, through a series of control questions, can clarify how the stated is understood. Lecture presentation of the material, as a rule, lasts part of the lesson and only in some cases the whole lesson. Sometimes the presentation of the material can be interrupted to answer the questions that the students have, and then continue the presentation. A school lecture always ends with a clarification of who and what is incomprehensible in the lecture material, and the answers of the teacher or students to all the questions that have arisen.
Interview
Interview: finding out what is learned from the main material, identifying gaps in knowledge and making adjustments to knowledge; stimulation of systematic and independent work.
Consultation
Consultation: elimination of gaps in knowledge and skills; clarification of what has been learned; answers to questions that arose in the course of educational work and assistance in mastering various types of educational and practical activities.
Laboratory and practical work
Laboratory and practical work: the formation of schoolchildren's ability to handle a computer and external devices, the ability to use application programs, the ability to write programs. A feature of practical work is the limitation in the time of work of students in the time specified in SanPiN 2. 2. 2. 542-96.
Here is a sample plan for the preparation of practical work:
Definition of the topic of practical work.
Goals set for practical work.
Skills and abilities that are expected to instill in students in the course of practical work.
The theoretical part preceding the practical work.
An example of a job.
Practical tasks for work.
Practical work report form.
Criteria for evaluating practical work.
Summing up the practical work.
The main point of the practical work is not the acquired knowledge, but the skills and abilities of independent practical work with a computer, external devices, application programs, input, editing and debugging of programs.
Programmed learning
Programmed learning refers to the controlled assimilation of the programmed educational material with the help of a computer and training programs. Programmed educational material is a series of small portions of educational information presented in a certain logical sequence. In programmed learning, first of all, goals and objectives are determined, clearly distinguishing what the student should know, understand, be able to: analyze the logical system of the course, exclude everything similar, secondary. Then the main topics, sections and subsections are singled out, which are divided into doses - information quanta, the reduction of which is impossible without compromising the semantic content. The content of each subsequent quantum of information is based on the information contained in the previous quantums. The size of the quantum of information is determined by the nature of the material, the level of development of students.
Thanks to the immediate feedback it is possible to eliminate unnecessary costs and more quickly achieve the assimilation of the material. Information about the correctness of the answer, after mastering each quantum, is of great psychological importance. This creates confidence in students and increases interest in the subject. The pace of presentation of information is consistent with the individual abilities of each student. Each student, depending on individual abilities, spends as much time on mastering the material as he needs, that is, the learning process can be individualized as much as possible. However, programmed learning has serious drawbacks.
The fragmentation of educational material into quanta and the impossibility of moving forward, provided that some quantum is not mastered, deprives the student of seeing a perspective in the development of the material being studied, its numerous connections and relationships. It is also very difficult to ensure the integrity of students' perception of all material.
offset
The test lesson is intended not only to control the knowledge and skills of students, but above all for the training, development and education of students through individual work with each student directly on the test.
The test is carried out on a whole topic or section. It is designed to test the understanding of the theoretical foundations of the topic being studied, to test the skills and abilities to use the knowledge of theory. The credit includes the material that all students must master. It is essential that during the test it is possible to establish the knowledge, skills and abilities that students need to study subsequent topics. In addition, it is advisable to include such material that is included in the program of final and entrance examinations, since one of the purposes of taking a test is to prepare students for such examinations.
In the schools of our country, the main organizational form of education is classroom system. It originates from the ideas of the Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius, who proposed to create stable age-specific school classes and systematically study certain subjects with these classes.
The class-lesson system makes it possible for all schools to work according to uniform curricula and programs and to provide socially necessary education to the majority of children. Why "most" and not all. Yes, it used to be "everyone". At present, there are a variety of schools: lyceums, colleges, public and private; practiced individual training at home. Of course, it is assumed that all these so-called alternative ways of obtaining general education should give children the same amount of knowledge and skills that correspond to uniform state standards. In practice, this does not always work out. Often, children studying in alternative educational institutions do not receive the necessary knowledge, and as a result, the value of education falls, additional financial costs for parents and additional teaching with tutors.
In state general education schools Until now, the class-lesson system has been the leading form of organization of education.
The stable composition of the class as the basis of the class-lesson system of education makes it possible to form educational teams that work together for a long time. This allows you to achieve better learning outcomes.
The organizational unit in the classroom-educational system is lesson.
Lesson and its structure
In a comprehensive school lesson - main form
learning. The duration of the lesson is determined by the pedagogical and school-organizational requirements. Curriculum and timetable ensure the consistency of subject lessons. Thanks to this, clarity and rhythm in the work of the school is achieved, a stable system of conditions is created that provides favorable prerequisites for conducting targeted, consistent and rational education with high results in personal development. At each lesson, it is necessary to go from a certain initial level to a higher level of personality development. This means that it is necessary to go through a certain (limited) educational material (new material, repetition or deepening of the previously covered), to ensure a solid assimilation of essential knowledge and the formation of the intended personality traits. Thus, schoolchildren are aware of the lesson as an independent unit.
At the end of the lesson, they can summarize and say what they learned and learned. However, such completeness of the lesson can only be relative. The learning process is not the sum of isolated results. In the course of it, continuous development of the learned system of knowledge, opinions and beliefs.
The knowledge and skills acquired during the lesson are based on those learned earlier, they are then used in subsequent topics, flow into new knowledge and skills, turning into broader and generalized knowledge, work skills and behavioral habits, ideological views and beliefs. The formation of the qualities of a socialist personality can be carried out only in the course of a continuous process.
The lesson as an independent unit with the relative completeness of the process of assimilation and development acquires its function in connection with its place in the learning process in
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as a whole or at major stages (phases) of this process. The curriculum already subdivides the subject into sections of educational material(topics, areas, etc.), the purpose and content of which are related to the general course of this subject and take into account the age of the students in the class. These sections are selected and arranged accordingly. The educational material included in one section of the program requires interconnected consideration. The intended goals also require planning and organization of training on this topic as a sequential process aimed at the gradual achievement of learning objectives. In addition, the educational material included in the section creates favorable opportunities for revealing relationships with other subjects, as well as teaching and forms of extracurricular work.
The function of the lesson is determined primarily from its place in the educational material of the section of the program. This function is determined by the specific weight of the lesson in the entire set of educational tasks of a certain section of the program, the share of the contribution made by the lesson to the achievement of personal development goals and the assimilation of certain educational material; the function of the lesson also lies in the fact that it provides a link between the content of training and its methodological support between previous and subsequent lessons.
This results not only precise definition what knowledge and skills, what collective labor skills should be learned or deepened in the lesson, but also the connection of these goals with the general sections of the curriculum. For example, the planned assimilation of knowledge in the lesson should take into account the need for their subsequent generalizations;
or, taking into account the special ideological significance of the content of the educational material to be mastered, the teacher must ensure the greatest effectiveness of the lesson for the formation of certain beliefs in students. From the specific contribution of the lesson to the solution of the didactic task of the program section and from its connection with other lessons, the connection between the old and new educational material follows, as a result of which the assimilation of new material can be carried out as a continuation and at the same time supplement and deepen the already completed educational material and can serve as preparation for passing future topics. And finally, another dominant didactic task of the lesson: whether the lesson is devoted to the introduction to the section of the program, the study of new material or its consolidation.
niya, systematization of the essential in this section or control (knowledge testing), or he performs all these tasks at once in their interconnection.
The structure of the lesson depends on its functions in the process of studying a large section of the program or in the learning process as a whole. Within the framework of the program sections, this is manifested in the sequence of lessons that are in a certain relationship. In the course of educational work, students gradually learn the educational material. Moreover, the teacher must stimulate this process by appropriate educational work, direct it and control it.
When solving various didactic tasks, not only their connection with the educational material and with the methods and means of its presentation and elaboration is traced, but also social relations student with teacher, with classmates.
The contribution of education to the development of the student's personality is largely determined by the quality of educational work - its active, conscious, creative, disciplined nature, as well as the conditions for the implementation of such work with a combination of collective and individual forms of independent educational activity of students.
Therefore, the structure of the lesson should include the sequence of steps in the learning process and the guiding activity of the teacher.
Parts (steps, phases, stages) of the lesson and their sequence are determined primarily by the purpose and content of the lesson, the initial level of knowledge and skills that students have and the corresponding specific conditions of the lesson.
The lesson must be built in such a way as to ensure the completeness of the assimilation process (from ensuring the initial level of assimilation to the full achievement of the intended results). In separate parts of the lesson (sometimes in the lesson as a whole) dominates, as a rule, solution of a particular didactic problem. In accordance with this task, the teacher must direct the schoolchildren's educational work along a certain line, focusing their attention in the direction dictated by this task. In certain parts of the lesson, the teacher prepares assimilation, introduces students to new material, provides a baseline for assimilation, sets a new goal, sometimes even gives an overview of what is to be learned. This increases the readiness of schoolchildren to consciously assimilate
new educational material. Then this material is presented by the teacher, studied together with the class or in student groups and assimilated in the course of independent work of schoolchildren (with a book, during experimentation, through observations, etc.). The deeper the material is studied, the better the learning success.
But the learning process is far from over. Educational material is worked out from different points of view. The knowledge formed at the same time deepens, for example, from a moral and ideological point of view, in the aspect of the development of science, from the point of view of this knowledge for practice in general and for each student in particular. Important provisions, methods of cognition and persuasion are fixed. The essential is assimilated, the sequence in the system of actions is worked out in order to form strong knowledge and skills. Assimilated knowledge or systems of actions are applied widely and diversely, systematized taking into account broader aspects (in connection with previously acquired knowledge) and again at a qualitatively higher level are deepened from a moral and ideological point of view. The intermediate results obtained are controlled by marks.
In this way, solid and practically applicable results are achieved step by step. To consolidate them, it is necessary in the further learning process to constantly repeat what has been covered, to consider the possibilities of applying the studied material so that students retain it in memory and increase their readiness for its practical use.
When structuring a lesson, it is always necessary to take into account both the logical sequence of learning steps, arising from the essence of the educational material, and the logical sequence of learning steps, associated with the consistent solution of didactic tasks in the lesson. The teacher must take these two interrelated provisions into account when planning and organizing the educational work of schoolchildren in the lesson. At the same time, it is necessary to avoid any schematism, for example, associated with the desire to solve didactic tasks each time in a strict sequence and with their strict distinction. Such a strict delimitation of tasks is impossible already because the ways and methods of their solution intersect, interpenetrate: the teacher is guided by the achievement of certain goals not only at the beginning of the lesson - he controls
determines the direction of the learning process in the lesson in many of its phases.
In the course of training at various stages of the lesson, attention is focused on the systematization, consolidation, deepening, application and repetition of knowledge and skills. But, as a rule, at each stage the solution of one task dominates, other tasks at this time are subordinate to the dominant one. The time required to solve a particular problem depends mainly on the nature of the educational material and the level of development of schoolchildren. In one educational material (for example, when learning a foreign language), most of the time is occupied by exercises, in another, preliminary preparation and introduction to the study of the content, application or systematization of this material is especially important. When passing through educational material, which is especially important for the formation of a worldview, it is necessary to pay attention to deepening the acquired knowledge.
Many lessons are structured, as a rule, in such a way that their goal is to learn new material. The new material is explained in such a way that during the lesson, students firmly learn the basic, essential. In such lessons, the didactic tasks that dominate at a certain moment change quite often. It is necessary to carefully allocate time so as not to miss the consolidation of new material, its memorization, application, systematization and generalization. With this construction of the lesson, its structure may be different depending on the content of the educational material. But it is possible to build a lesson in such a way that it serves mainly the assimilation of new knowledge. In this case, as a methodological support, the teacher uses, for example, a story, film demonstrations, radio or television broadcasts, or stimulates the assimilation of educational material by students through experiments, observation, work with a book, problem solving. At the same time, it is important to carefully prepare new material (at previous lessons, during homework or at the initial stages of the lesson) and develop a target setting for the lesson, so as not to lose sight of the consolidation of the material and control over its assimilation. In further lessons, based on what has been achieved, it is necessary to continue working on educational material, to consolidate it and deepen it, to conduct special exercises with students widely and in different situations, to repeat and systematize the material in such a way
at once, so that in the course of several lessons to come to a complete assimilation. It would be wrong to hold several such lessons in a row, in which new material is mainly explained without sufficient depth of mastering it. This would adversely affect the performance of students, especially the weak ones.
Lessons of another type are characterized by the fact that they other didactic tasks dominate: exercises, repetition, systematization, verification (oral or written) of progress or analysis and evaluation of learning outcomes (for example, when returning checked written work). A lesson of any type should always be logically connected to the chain of all lessons. To structure the lesson great importance has a change in organizational forms of education.
Three forms of education are mainly used in the lessons: frontal, individual and group. All of them have their advantages and disadvantages. To solve some problems, it is better to use some organizational forms, to solve others - others, so that none of them can be considered universal. The teacher must know the forms of organization of learning and use them most reasonably, choosing in each case the most appropriate form for organizing the learning process.
At frontal learning the whole class is working on a single task, for example, students listen to the presentation of the teacher or watch an educational film with him. They watch the teacher demonstrate the experience or listen to the student's message, which he makes with the help of visual aids, maps, etc. The central place is given to joint work. This organizational form of the lesson is characterized by a certain type of connection between the teacher and the class team. A common subject matter, a common goal and direct cooperation contribute to the development of close and strong relationships between the teacher and the class team. The teacher directs the work of students directly (words, appeals) or indirectly (setting tasks, teaching aids used, demonstration, problematic discussion, etc.). Different authors divide frontal work into its types, depending on whether it serves the students' perception of the material presented by the teacher, or collective discussion.
The frontal presentation of the material serves primarily to focus the attention of students on the material being presented. An atmosphere of intense attention should reign in the class, when each student is able to perceive new things, make notes, think, remember essential things, ask questions, etc. The teacher should monitor the whole class, see if everyone understands the material being presented, if there are any difficulties in perception (for all or for individual students). The effectiveness of this form of organizing a lesson depends on the quality of presentation of new material by the teacher and on the quality of perception of this material by schoolchildren (when monitoring the availability of the pace of presentation for its clear perception by each student), on the atmosphere prevailing in the classroom (silence, attention, benevolence). This form of lesson organization is rational, as it ensures the overall progress of all students in the learning process. But the limits of its applicability are also obvious. It is advisable to use the frontal presentation only for solving certain problems and, above all, for communicating new information to all students. However, it provides few opportunities for individual work with students.
At collective form frontal work, the attention of students is focused on the joint performance of tasks (exercises): learning songs, memorizing the rule, pronouncing a foreign sentence, etc. The teacher communicates with the whole class, as in the frontal presentation. Individual exercise can at the same time, be included in the collective (the rest of the students observe, together with the teacher, the implementation of the individual exercise). Also common in practice frontal conversations. The importance attached by many teachers to frontal conversation is explained by the possibility of direct contact with the whole class. In a conversation, the teacher can more intensively than in a frontal presentation or exercise, observe individual students, work with them individually, guide and activate them.
At the same time, it is especially valuable if the teacher can positively influence the public opinion of the team or can strengthen it. To this end, the teacher must organize communication within the team and ensure that students, when addressing each other during a dispute and in their objections and answers to them, establish comradely relations among themselves.
At individual work each student receives his own task, which he must complete independently of the others. The meaning of this form of organization of education becomes clear if we imagine classes in a foreign language classroom. Here, each student works independently. He has his own tape recorder, his own textbook. It is isolated from others by headphones or a baffle. The teacher takes turns participating in the individual work of students, controls and directs it, and gives it marks. This function can partially be performed alternately and students when they work in pairs. The organization of individual work in the learning process is advisable not only for exercises, but also for solving other problems, for example, when working with a book, when solving a written or oral cognitive task, when drawing, looking at models, visual aids, objects or processes in nature.
Individual form of work It is especially appropriate for organizing the educational process that meets the individual abilities and capabilities of individual students. With the same learning tasks, its pace can be adjusted in accordance with the individual abilities of students, it can be given to individual students or groups specially selected individualized tasks. The teacher must ensure that each student has a task, that he understands it, that his workplace has all the teaching aids necessary to complete this task and all subsequent ones. The teacher observes the performance of the task, makes sure that the students choose the most rational way of working and that everyone works with concentration. If he notices difficulties or the students report that they are not coping with the task, he must intervene, explain, point to the necessary manuals or additional material. The teacher can interrupt individual work and return to the frontal form of organizing learning if he notices that for the success of individual work, it is necessary to once again give students fundamental explanations. If individual students need help, he helps them on the spot, without distracting others, or temporarily works with a group of students who are faced with the same or similar difficulties. At the same time, it is very important to combine collective and individual work in such a way that individual work
flowed from the collective and again reduced to it. Each student works alone only temporarily so that he can exercise at an individual pace, acquire the skills of independent mental and practical activity and show good results in this work when checking progress. Each student can test his strength at the same time: he masters the methods of mental and practical work, learns to realistically assess his successes, catch up and improve his special abilities in areas that are of particular interest to him.
In the course of individual work, students almost do not communicate with each other (when checking assignments, there is no communication at all). The teacher, on the contrary, must observe the whole class and each student individually, from time to time paying attention to only one student. However, other students should not be given the impression that the teacher has overlooked them. Guidance of the individual form of work is facilitated if a correct attitude towards individual teaching is brought up in the classroom team. The effectiveness of this form of work of students can be significantly promoted by rational use teaching aids, among which a special place is occupied by programmed materials.
At group work The class is temporarily divided into several groups. It is necessary to avoid dividing the class into permanent groups, as this can lead to the formation of groups of students of different levels of achievement (stronger, average and weak) in self-education and ability to it. In addition, this creates direct cooperation, cooperation between students.
Group work is carried out with the same or differentiated tasks. An independent solution of the same problems can be completed with a final collective analysis. If all groups came to the same conclusion, the validity of what was learned increases. the same tasks you can sometimes organize a competition (for example, when solving a technical constructive problem, when solving an
pictorial problem, when finding a rational way to solve a mathematical problem, when developing proposals for a wall newspaper, etc.). Differentiated group tasks can be given in order to provide each group with certain exercises, experiments on appropriate devices, machines, etc. In addition, in this way the cognitive process can be expanded: certain operations are performed only by separate groups, but all students are informed about the progress of the task and about the results. At the same time, it is important to organize a collective compilation of group reports.
Differentiated tasks can be given, for example, to certain groups in the process of labor training. Various observation tasks can be given during the excursions. In a physical education lesson, you can perform various training exercises on individual equipment. Groups can conduct differentiated analytical work with maps and literature. Various variants of a school experiment can be carried out in groups to test the correctness of a particular hypothesis.
Well-prepared and thoughtfully applied group work creates favorable educational opportunities. Cooperation encourages students to exchange information, form their own opinions, discuss the appropriate way to complete tasks, and agree on the assimilation of the knowledge necessary for this. It teaches teamwork. At the same time, talents and abilities can be revealed, especially when the functions (roles) of certain students change when solving the task assigned to the group.
Group work, as well as individual work, should flow from collective (frontal) work. In group work, the teacher should distribute his attention to all groups and at the same time (in turn) intensively observe the work of a particular group. He should help, direct and, if necessary, interrupt group work with a common frontal activity, if this turns out to be necessary in the interests of an effective cognitive process. The number of groups may vary depending on the subject, the age of the students and the task (from 2 to 10 people, with 3-5 students being the average size of the group).
The teacher, organizing frontal, individual and group forms of work in the lesson, should always know that all these forms depend on the goals and didactic tasks of the lesson:
- if a teacher plans to teach children how to write individual letters, introduce them to the rules of communication, include them in observations of natural changes, tell children episodes from the history of their people, read them a fairy tale, etc., he should use the frontal form of learning, work with the whole class ;
If he plans to develop certain skills and abilities in students: write letters from written and printed copybooks and stencils, use addition and multiplication tables to solve the “column”, use knowledge to compare sizes, tree leaves, flowers, actions of heroes from fairy tales, stories, fables, cartoons, to establish links between the phenomena of the surrounding world, to answer the question "Why is this happening?", he must use customized molds work;
When a teacher or educator wants to see how children can communicate with each other, help each other, strive to achieve common goals, worry about the failures of a friend, he uses a group form of learning organization. And perhaps it is she who has the greatest educational effect, since it is in joint group activities that children enter into direct communication with each other, worry about the result of collective activity, support and help each other.
The effectiveness of the application and change of organizational forms of training is due to the observance of the following requirements.
1. Implementation of links between the purpose, content, methods, organization and conditions of the learning process. One or another organizational form is chosen expediently only if it creates the necessary organizational and methodological prerequisites for achieving the set learning goals. Certain goals and learning material often require the use of very specific teaching methods, such as an emotionally charged teacher's story or a polemical discussion of an issue in class conversation. The choice of organizational forms depends on the specifics of the material being studied, on its volume, degree of difficulty, on the degree of familiarization of students with it, on its presentation in the textbook, etc.
2. Intensive teaching of all students, the formation of their strong and effective knowledge and skills and mental abilities. Organizational forms should be chosen in such a way that they facilitate this process. Thus, group work only fulfills its true function when it contributes to an increase in the effectiveness of learning, and does not lead only to external activity.
3. Rationalization of educational work. A change in organizational forms should not lead, for example, to an increase in the time required to complete the curriculum.
4. Solving various educational tasks in the learning process(for example, the education of collectivism, camaraderie and mutual assistance, efficiency, perseverance, independence).
5. Individual approach to students in the learning process.
6. Taking into account the special conditions and opportunities in which the training takes place. This includes, in particular, the level of development of students (attitude towards learning, etc.), the pedagogical and methodological skills of the teacher, his didactic and methodological experience, etc. Thus, taking into account the age characteristics of schoolchildren makes it possible to increase the share of individual work in the upper grades; accordingly, the proportion of frontal work decreases. The level of development of the class, its composition can lead to the fact that in one case frontal work will prevail, in others it becomes necessary to increase group work.
In addition to lessons in primary school it is possible to conduct various excursions to nature, to industrial enterprises, to museums. Here, students gain knowledge by directly getting acquainted with natural objects, human labor, art, folk art, crafts, and the history of their native land. Excursions are an active way of learning, since children can do various creative works based on the materials they have collected, see: prepare collections, make drawings, write essays. Topics and objects of excursions are given in the programs for each subject. The teacher and educator, having this approximate list, determine for themselves where and for what purpose they will lead their children. After all, the programs that determine the general directions of the excursion activity of the elementary school and kindergarten cannot provide for the specific features of the region where the educational institution is located.
The choice of objects for excursions is the creativity of the teacher and educator.
Optional education is an important part of the educational program of our school. For elementary school, the programs provide for the following elective courses: "Introduction to Ethnology" and "Ecology for Primary School Students". This, of course, does not mean that the teacher does not have the right to develop his courses based on his own knowledge and the characteristics of the region where the school is located, the availability of specialists and masters of various professions, and the cultural environment. Here again boundless horizons of creativity open up for teachers and educators.
Optional education assumes that students independently, freely choose one or another course. The task of the teacher is to help the child choose what suits his inclinations and natural inclinations, in order to avoid the situation that A. Barto described in her poem:
And Marya Markovna said, When I walked yesterday from the hall:
Choose for yourself, my friend, one of some circles. Well, I chose from the photo, And I also want to sing, And everyone voted for the drawing circle.
And here again labor, labor of creativity, labor of searches and mastery of teachers and educators.
The creativity of a teacher and educator is born not only from the knowledge that makes up the content of education, from the knowledge of what to teach. To master a pedagogical specialty, other knowledge is also needed: how to teach and educate children, in what ways, techniques and methods. It is necessary to master the technology of training and education. And these are the principles, methods and techniques of pedagogical activity.
Didactic principles
Pedagogical principles are those general provisions that are the main guideline in pedagogical work. Didactic principles are general guidelines for planning, organizing and analyzing learning practice.
In didactics, the following principles are considered the most frequently used.
The principle of scientific character and the connection of learning with life assumes that in the process of learning, students receive a general education based on the unity of science and practice, on knowledge of the laws of nature and society. When organizing the educational process, the teacher must build the learning process strictly scientifically in order to give students an idea of the methods of scientific knowledge. It is important to use the fundamentals of scientific knowledge with which he equips students in order to bring students with logical necessity to the provisions that underlie worldview and morality.
Education should be closely related to life. Therefore, in the learning process, it is necessary to take into account the life experience of students and the older generation. Science and connection with life should become, thanks to the appropriate organization of the learning process, the main criteria for organizing the life of schoolchildren. For example, students should know and understand that in the world around us all phenomena and processes are interconnected, nothing happens just like that, without a reason. This is one of the leading ideas that allows us to understand the development and change in nature, society, man, to understand the development of the world that surrounds us, so the question "Why?" should be the main one for the educator and teacher. It is from the first years of a child's life that it is necessary, if possible, to satisfy his curiosity, to teach him to look for the reasons for what is happening that interests him.
The principle of systematic education is one of the main ones in didactics, as it affirms the need to organize a consistent systematic study of educational material, the use of a system of teaching aids. For example, depending on the content of the lesson, its goals, the teacher applies a system of teaching methods that lead children from simple reproduction to independent creative actions with the studied material. Educational material should be studied in a system when relationships are established between individual elements of the world around the child.
The system of knowledge and skills should be connected with the system of beliefs and norms of behavior. And here, too, teachers and educators, together with children, go from simple norms and rules to more complex ones, from knowledge of the norms to their implementation.
The principle of the leading role of the teacher with the conscious active activity of students in the learning process, it is the basis of the interaction between the teacher and students. The teacher must manage the activities of children in such a way that favorable conditions are created for their learning. At the same time, in his leadership activities, he combines high requirements for students with respect for their personality. The teacher acts in teaching as a representative of society, as a defender of the interests of the children themselves, as a representative of teaching staff, a conductor of scientific views. He must develop in children self-confidence, constantly help them, stimulating and encouraging their efforts. With the help of a teacher, children should actively participate in the learning process, develop their independence, strive for new knowledge. The task of the teacher is to constantly increase the requirements, to create conditions for the overall development of students.
The principle of taking into account age and individual characteristics contributes to the proper organization of training and education. Children are constantly evolving and changing. With age, new, higher requirements are imposed on them, new, more complex activities are offered, interpersonal relationships are improved. Thus, certain age features.
Profound changes occur primarily during the transition from kindergarten to school, from the junior to the middle, from the middle to the senior. These changes are manifested in the level of knowledge and skills, in relationships to each other and to oneself. The teacher must be sensitive to these changes in order to ensure consistent progress. Each child shows his individual characteristics. The teacher, thanks to a differentiated and individual approach, stimulates the development of each child, which is necessary for the further improvement of individual abilities and talents. The development of the child contributes to the inclusion of him in the children's team.
The principle of visibility makes learning appropriate for the age of the children. Teaching should be visual to the extent necessary, so that each knowledge is based on living perception and representation. Visibility connects the process of cognition with experience, with practice.
The principle of visibility involves taking into account, when organizing the educational process, the natural connections between the senses
venous and rational (logical) knowledge and between knowledge and practice. The results of observation of reality become knowledge only when they find their expression in language means, in scientific terms. It is necessary to constantly refer to the sensory foundations of knowledge, expand and deepen them for a more complete understanding of these concepts, categories, principles.
The principle of accessibility is also closely related to the age of the children. With a planned and systematic organization of training, it is necessary to ensure that knowledge was available to all students. Previously acquired knowledge of students should ensure the fulfillment of the requirements of the new level. At the same time, accessibility should not be understood in a simplistic way, as a teaching without difficulties. Any progress must require the application of efforts to overcome difficulties. Everything new is made available thanks to the efforts of students and the guidance of the teacher. Another thing is that the efforts of each child, as well as abilities, are different. This should be taken into account by the teacher.
The principle of strength and effectiveness of learning outcomes. It should be remembered that the value of learning is determined by its results, which students come to, those qualities that have been formed in the learning process. These results must be durable. Each section of the educational material, each lesson should be based on previously learned. This is also important for the holistic process of educating students. When planning the educational process, it is necessary to provide a certain time for consolidation, repetition, systematization, application of knowledge and skills, control.
The didactic principles described above form a unity and apply to all joint activities of the teacher and students in the learning process. All principles are focused on the formation of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality.
Teaching methods and techniques
Teaching methods are called certain ways of interaction between the activities of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving the goals of learning as a means of education and upbringing. When choosing teaching methods, it is necessary to take into account the specific purpose and objectives of training, the features regulated by the curriculum
Distinguish between general and private teaching methods. General Methods generalize a certain set of systems of sequential actions of the teacher and students in the interaction of teaching and learning. General methods always contain indications of the means used in the learning process. The development of general teaching methods is the subject of didactics.
private methods, or teaching methods, - the concretization of these general methods in relation to the content of the subject. Teaching methods are usually a complex sequence learning activities teachers and students. In each teaching method, as an integral part, certain methods of teaching and learning are included. The effectiveness of the learning process is ensured not only by the introduction of new techniques or the use of well-known techniques for solving complex didactic problems, but also by methods and techniques used by the teacher in different ways. These can be methods of setting tasks, questions, methods of explanation, control, solving oral and written problems, etc.
Each teaching method must be selected and used in interconnection with other teaching methods, since there is no universal all-encompassing method. When choosing methods, the teacher must take into account the requirements of the training. The variety of methods allows the use of numerous combinations of them, which involves taking into account the characteristics of this content and specific learning conditions, but at the same time allows you to enliven the learning process, making it more interesting for children.
Teaching methods can be seen as the result of a generalization of the experience of interaction between students and teachers.
In didactics, following the classification of teaching methods developed by I. Ya. Lerner and M. N. Skatkin, the following general methods are distinguished:
- explanatory and illustrative, which are used by the teacher and educator when it is necessary to give children new, still unknown to them, information. For example, to give concepts about the three states of matter: solid, liquid and
gaseous; about a broken line, a triangle and a polygon; idea of nature conservation, of what is “good” and what is “bad”, etc.;
- partially search, used by the teacher and educator in cases where it is necessary to teach children to independently use the acquired knowledge in practice, in solving various problems and problems. At the same time, the teacher, organizing the cognitive activity of his wards, helps them, guides their independent search in obtaining new knowledge. Partially, search methods are used in teaching students to classify objects into groups, to highlight the main features by which the classification is carried out; retell texts, highlight the main idea of what was read; compare objects with each other; set the sequence of events;
identify their connections, etc. (here the skills to apply knowledge in various situations are practiced);
- methods of organizing independent search creative activity of children(research methods) used when the teacher wants to see how his students and pupils can, without his help, apply the acquired knowledge and skills in unfamiliar situations. For example, inventing your own version of the development of the plot of fairy tales and stories known to children;
classify various leaves according to their tree affiliation, etc.
A special group of methods in didactics are problem learning methods, in which students are systematically involved in the process of solving problems and problematic tasks, as a result of which the experience of creative activity is assimilated and creative abilities are formed. Problem-based learning is based on the idea of S. L. Rubinshtein that thinking always begins with a problem situation. From a psychological point of view, a problematic situation is a difficulty, explicitly or implicitly realized by a person, the ways to overcome which require the search for new knowledge, new ways of action. Without understanding the nature of the difficulties, there is no need for search, and without search there is no creative thinking. But not every difficulty causes a problem situation, not every problem situation stimulates the process of thinking. This position is very important for the teacher, so that in the educational process there are no problems that are too difficult to solve, that can only avert
prepared the child's mind from independent thinking (cognition) and weaken faith in their own strength.
A problematic situation for a child is created by the question of a teacher or a textbook, a teaching aid, to which he must answer. But this question should correspond to the fund of knowledge and skills available to the child. In addition, the teacher must know something else: has the child learned to independently solve the tasks that were previously set for him, has he learned to understand that knowledge is the way, the tool with which he can solve the problem.
From here follows the main function of problem-based learning - to arouse in the child an interest in knowledge, in solving an unfamiliar problem, in mastering the experience of creative activity; it acts as a means of educating a creative personality.
Problem-based learning should permeate the entire educational process. But we must remember that it is impossible to build it only on the problems that a teacher or a textbook gives children.
It is necessary to teach children ways of search activity, means of comparing and classifying objects and phenomena of the real world, ways of establishing various connections between phenomena, skills, they should be able to answer the question "Why?" and most importantly - to establish that they do not know how to solve the problem.
In modern didactics, the following methods of problem-based learning are distinguished.
1. research method. In the learning process, problematic tasks of an increasing level of complexity are included, which students must solve on their own. These tasks can be very diverse: written tasks, long-term research tasks, critical analysis of what has been read, etc. The main thing is that the student investigates the problem completely and independently, so that he carries out certain stages of research activity: observing and studying facts and phenomena; revealing the unknown (obscure) - what needs to be explored; drawing up and implementing a research plan (research of unknown phenomena and their relationship with other phenomena). It is important that in the process of solving new problems constantly arise. The more often students are involved in this type of learning, the better and faster they will learn to solve difficult cognitions.
wearable tasks. After the students have understood the problem, they themselves draw up a creative search plan, conduct observations, record facts, compare, classify, prove and draw appropriate conclusions. The truth that students discover in the classroom is not new to science, but it is - and most importantly - new to students. The use of the research method requires a lot of work, and therefore is rarely used in practice. Often only strong students receive such creative tasks, although weak students can also take part in the performance of creative tasks if they are given the necessary assistance.
2. heuristic methods, which are often used in work with high school students.
3. Problem presentation. The problematic presentation differs from the teacher's informative story in that the teacher does not present the material in a complete form, but sets tasks in the process of the story. Setting tasks, shows students how they were solved in science. Thus, he makes them, as it were, a participant in scientific research and discoveries.
The advantages of the problem presentation in comparison with other types of presentation of educational information are that it makes the teacher's story more conclusive. Knowledge is substantiated more deeply and, therefore, in the presence of other favorable conditions, it can more easily pass into beliefs. Problem presentation teaches students to think, it captures them emotionally and increases interest in educational material. The problem presentation makes high demands on the teacher's knowledge in the relevant field of science. He must be fluent in the educational material, know in what ways this science came to the truth, including some interesting details of this movement.
When used correctly, problem-based learning methods can have a strong educational impact on students. For example, by learning through the process of problem-based learning how science came to certain discoveries, students learn how the new won over the old. Thus, they are directly involved in the process of assimilation of worldview problems.
Illustrative and explanatory method in the learning process can be expressed in the form of a variety of techniques that have a common characteristic - this is the presentation to the student, pupil of a new, unknown
him material, new information that he cannot obtain on his own on the basis of his existing knowledge. In other words, method and technique are related to each other as general and particular. There is a didactic illustrative and explanatory method, which in the practice of teaching is implemented in different ways, various techniques - specific methods. (IN In this case, we believe that the teacher himself should choose how to use, specify the general didactic explanatory and illustrative method - in the form of a separate specific method-reception or in the form of their combination.)
First and main reception familiarization of students with new, unknown to children material is oral presentation of the teacher, his story about new facts, phenomena, processes of the surrounding world. For example, he talks about historical facts, explains and shows how individual letters are written, how sentences are composed;
illustrates his story with pictures, visual aids (collections, herbariums, filmstrips, movies, music, etc.). The teacher explains the educational material, using primarily the possibilities of language expressiveness, using, as a rule, various teaching aids. The educational material should be presented consistently, in an accessible way, in order to ensure the active perception of the material by students.
The teacher's story rational means of communicating knowledge. With the help of the word, one can evoke vivid ideas, while using selected facts and skillfully combining them, contrasting and placing accents. Thus, it is possible to contribute to the deep penetration of students into the interconnection of phenomena, and by repeating and highlighting the main provisions, one can emphasize the main thing in the cognitive process. A captivating teacher's message can give a lesson a unique emotional brilliance, it will remain in the memory of children for many years. In most cases, with the help of a whole story, the teacher can more effectively than other methods, acquaint students with the greatest events of history and modernity, works of art, etc. But the art of exposition is one of the skills of the teacher, which he must constantly improve.
Depending on the purpose, objectives and content of the lesson, the teacher's story may take the form descriptions, explanations,
explanations, presentations or characteristics events or objects.
Often a demonstration is used as an illustrative and explanatory method. The teacher demonstrates objects, phenomena and processes with the help of teaching aids or shows them in kind. This should include the display of activities, the demonstration of ways of behavior. In these situations, presentation is also in the foreground. Students should observe, think about what they see, ask questions, add the results of their observations, draw (for example, observations of the weather), comment. The demonstration may be of a different nature. For example, in nature studies lessons, a teacher can demonstrate experiments on changing the state of matter, various minerals, drawings of animals, leaves, flowers, herbs collected by students from their region, as well as films about the rules of human behavior, etc. Demonstration options are associated with the specifics of various subjects , didactic tasks of educational subjects.
At all phases of the learning process, from familiarization with new material to consolidation, students can also be involved in the presentation of the material. Particularly justified student report. Of course, in elementary school, this is more likely not a report, but just a message. As a rule, students are given such instructions in advance. This is a great tool for student development.
It helps the less prepared student to increase self-confidence. The presentation of the material with the help of speech means makes the student assess the level of his knowledge. The rest of the students need to be taught to listen carefully, to supplement if they have something to say.
Methods of presentation, methods of storytelling, demonstration can be used in a very diverse way. These methods must be commensurately associated with other methods, primarily with conversation and with independent work of students. At the same time, the share of participation of different methods in such a combination may be different depending on the age, the subject and the content of the educational material.
One of the essential teaching methods is collaboration between the teacher and his students. In this process, they are alternately engaged in receptive, mentally active and productive activities, contributing to those
to achieve the learning goal. In this situation, language communication between all participants plays an important role. Therefore, the corresponding teaching technique is often characterized as a learning conversation. It is applied with success at all stages of education. Often the conversation is also used when checking the assimilation of the material and on excursions, when systematizing the material covered.
Conversation used in the teaching of all subjects. No matter how different the conversation is conducted, it has a common goal, which is to ensure a constant connection between the participants in this cognitive
process.
Some teachers tend to turn conversation into a universal method of getting acquainted with new educational material. In fact, sometimes it is much more effective to use the methods of oral presentation for this purpose. The conversation meets, first of all, the goal of mastering the educational material and assumes the presence of basic knowledge of this material.
Learning situations should be organized in such a way that the independent work of students. Of course, both in the case of oral presentation and in the case of a conversation, students should mostly work independently. However, in the course of independent work itself, each student, receiving a specific task, must perform the necessary actions in order to present his solution to the task. In the application of this method, the correct statement of the problem for each student is decisive. In preparation for learning new material, repetition tasks are often set to refresh previously learned knowledge. It is very important to use the method of independent work in the process of monitoring and testing the knowledge of schoolchildren. Having organized the independent work of all students, the teacher can work alternately with individual students or with a group of students.
When organizing independent work of students in the activities of the teacher, it is necessary to single out, first of all, three defining moments: the choice of the type of activity and the setting of tasks; observation and regulation of educational activities of schoolchildren; monitoring and evaluation of results. In doing so, the following requirements must be taken into account.
1. A smart choice of activities students assumes a clear statement of the problem; checking understanding
students of the task; instructing students regarding the sequence of their actions and organizing the activities of students when using the necessary aids; analysis of the complexity of the task and emphasis on difficulties; providing the necessary assistance; explanation of the forms of independent work and the requirements for its implementation.
2. Observation and regulation of the educational process during independent work of schoolchildren includes: selective observation of individual students; assistance in preventing errors; regulation of student behavior; providing a business atmosphere; stimulation of creativity.
3. Monitoring and evaluation of results includes: direction and stimulation of self-control and self-evaluation of the results of students' work; amendments, deepenings; assistance in self-assessment by students of the results of their activities; consolidation of new methods of work.
A variety of methods of independent work of students can be used in the lesson.
1. Working with a book used along with a report, story, teacher's conversation. The book has always been the most important source of knowledge. The system of school books includes textbooks on the subject in each class, collections of practical tasks and exercises, workbooks, anthologies for specific educational material. The textbook is the most important school aid. Collections of practical tasks and exercises, problem books, working materials contain additional tasks for independent solution. The system of textbooks and teaching aids provides students with an exceptional opportunity to regularly develop methods for independent work with a book. Textbooks are used not only for repetition, but also for the assimilation of new knowledge. Students should be taught to work independently with the book as a means of self-education. Working with a book is the basis for the gradual involvement of schoolchildren in reading other books, as well as newspapers and magazines.
It is advisable to use the textbook in combination with other methods, namely with the teacher's story, demonstration, etc. The great value of the textbook is undeniable when consolidating and repeating, during exercises, memorizing material. It is necessary to use a textbook and other educational materials in the course of systematizing knowledge, when broader concepts are introduced in the process of generalization.
tiya, interconnections of the world outlook plan. In the course of systematization of knowledge, it is necessary to use anthologies with their inherent arrangement of educational material.
2. Techniques for memorizing and applying acquired knowledge and skills serve the formation, improvement and consolidation of knowledge and skills. If these actions are performed in constantly changing conditions, we are dealing with the processes of applying knowledge and skills. If in the course of the exercise, students must capture what they have learned in memory, then this is already memorization. Each subject has its own specific teaching methods. Memorization techniques play a special role in the lessons of native and foreign languages, mathematics. In the system of exercises, the decisive factor is their comprehensiveness, systematicity, consistency and a constant increase in the level of difficulty of their implementation. By exercising, students learn ways (techniques) with the help of which they more confidently and comprehensively acquire the relevant skills and abilities. To improve speech skills in teaching, for example, the following methods are used: retelling, conveying the meaning of the text, compiling a story from a picture, memorizing poems, songs, compiling sentences using the indicated words, etc. It is necessary that the teacher change this system of exercises according to the actual level of development their students. Exercises, the meaning of which is incomprehensible to the student, rather harm than contribute to his development. It is advisable to apply exercises, in accordance with the individual characteristics of students. When performing exercises, it is necessary to replace hard work with rest, alternating activities. In the course of the exercises, it is advisable to check progress, to promote constant self-control of students. You can give this activity a competitive form and, as it is carried out, record the successes achieved by schoolchildren, no matter how small they may be, in order to help strengthen
their confidence in their own strength.
3. Combination of methods of observation, demonstration and conversation. During the demonstration, students observe with concentration, as well as generalize, think over what they see;
during observation, as well as during exercise, with the help of a certain material (transparencies, tapes, models, etc.)
the importance of the steps of educational activity. Observations, as a rule, cover a fairly long period of time. For example, in elementary grades, students make long-term observations of the weather or how a flower turns into a fruit. These observations are accompanied by records, often in the form of tables. A certain form of observation is an excursion. During the excursion, students conduct independent observations, performing tasks given in advance by the teacher, organize group observations, describe what they see and draw certain conclusions, supplement them with photographs, drawings, collected materials (leaves, flowers, etc.).
The quality of the application of these methods depends to a large extent on the setting of tasks, on the clarity of instructions, on the conduct of exercises, and, last but not least, on individual and collective evaluation of performance.
4. The most complex form of independent work of students in teaching natural science subjects is educational experiment, which is used more often in high school. It is used, for example, when searching for a problem, when conducting practical work, when introducing new material, when deepening, consolidating or applying it, when developing certain skills in the course of testing what has been learned. In cases where the teacher organizes and directs the experiment, the latter can be carried out frontally. The level of independence of students is higher in those cases when they themselves conduct an experiment (individually or in a group), and guiding instructions are given by the teacher only at the beginning, and, if necessary, at certain stages of the experiment. Good preparation, setting appropriate questions, distributing responsibilities, determining the course of the experiment - all this determines the successful course of schoolchildren's activities, the development of students' cognitive activity. During the experiment, the teacher observes the activities of the students, provides the necessary assistance to various groups or individual students, arouses their interest and directs their attention to the decisive moments of the experimental observation. It is necessary to record the results of the experiment, to prevent student errors; it is necessary to help schoolchildren in posing questions, in organizing the receipt of results and their experiments
mental verification to show the unity of theory and practice, to obtain specific knowledge with a certain
degree of evidence.
The presented material on the essence of the learning process as the interaction between the teacher and students makes it possible to
the following conclusions:
Education is subject to the goals fixed in the relevant programs and state standards;
The learning objectives are specified in the content of education, which is revealed in programs, textbooks and teaching aids for each academic subject;
The principles of education determine those strategic directions in which the education system is being built in the Russian Federation and, perhaps, in the world as a whole;
Teaching methods and techniques are the sphere of the teacher's creativity. He uses them depending on the objectives of the lesson, topic, section, on the preparedness of the class, the individual characteristics of the children and the regional and ethnic characteristics of the area where the school is located, on the level of pedagogical skill of the teacher.
INSTITUTE OF ECONOMY AND FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS
Work on the discipline "Psychology and Pedagogy"
On the topic "Forms and methods of teaching"
Completed:
Student of group Z - FK
Panamarev K.V.
Teacher:
Senchenko I. N.
Saratov
Traditionally, in pedagogy, the teaching method is defined as a way of activity, the implementation of which leads to the achievement of the goal. Their classification contributes to the expedient and effective use of methods as a teaching tool.
In accordance with the concept of the content of education I.Ya, Lerner and M.N. Skatkin propose a classification of general didactic methods according to the level of cognitive independent schoolchildren, in which two groups are distinguished. The first is reproductive: explanatory-illustrative and self-reproductive; the second is productive: problematic presentation, partially exploratory (heuristic), research. An essential feature of productive teaching methods (problem presentation, partially exploratory, research), in the process of applying which the creative assimilation of knowledge and skills is carried out, is the search activity of students. Search activity is organized by means of performing creative independent work of a problematic nature.
essence problem presentation method consists in the fact that the teacher poses a problem, solves it himself, but at the same time shows the path of solution in its true, but accessible to students, contradictions, reveals trains of thought when moving along the path of solution. A problematic presentation can be based on material from the history of science or by demonstrative disclosure of a modern way of solving a problem. With its help, students receive a standard of scientific thinking and cognition, an example of a culture of deploying cognitive actions.
Partial search (heuristic) method gradually brings students closer to independent problem solving, teaches the implementation of individual steps of the solution, individual stages of the study. In one case, they are taught to see problems by asking questions about a picture, a map, or the text of an educational article; in another case, they are required to construct a self-found proof; in the third - to draw conclusions from the presented facts; in the fourth - to make an assumption; in the fifth - to build a plan for its verification, etc.
research method teaches self-realization of the process of cognition. It is designed, firstly, to ensure the creative application of knowledge; secondly, mastering the methods of scientific knowledge in the process of searching for these methods And their application; thirdly, it forms the previously described features of creative activity; and, fourthly, it is a condition for the formation of cognitive interest, motivation for the activities of schoolchildren.
In the practice of the teacher's work, research (creative) tasks are small search tasks, the solution of which requires going through all or most of the stages of the research process.
These stages are: 1) observation and study of facts and phenomena; 2) clarification of incomprehensible phenomena, hypotheses; 3) building a research plan; 4) implementation of the plan, explanation of the relationships of the studied objects and phenomena; 5) making a decision; 6) verification of the solution; 7) conclusions about the possible and necessary application of the acquired knowledge.
Students, gradually mastering the stages of scientific knowledge in the process of solving problems, acquire certain features of creative activity.
Thus, the use of problem-based learning methods provides: 1) deep assimilation of knowledge at the level of their creative application; 2) mastering the methods of cognition and scientific thinking; 3) mastering the experience, features, procedures of creative activity.
Teaching methods are used in conjunction with certain teaching aids (teaching and visual aids, demonstration devices, technical equipment, etc.). Didactic tools are divided into tools for teachers and students. The first are the means to effectively achieve the goals of education: education standards, basic and additional sources of information, etc.; the second - individual means of students, such as textbooks, notebooks, additional sources of information, etc.
The selection of teaching aids is determined by the characteristic features of the subject, the level of material equipment of the school with teaching aids, learning objectives, teaching methods, age and individual characteristics of students, and the level of professional skill of the teacher.
The concept of "means of learning" has a broader meaning and is interpreted as a set of components that contribute to the achievement of the goals of education, i.e. a complex of methods, forms, content, as well as special teaching aids. Under the special teaching aids are also understood learning technologies.
The selection of teaching methods and means depends on the purpose of education, specific didactic tasks, the content of training and the real possibilities of the participants in the pedagogical process.
Possession of the didactic foundations of a modern lesson enables the teacher to methodically and competently design all three parts of the lesson model.
First part - didactic rationale("header") - reflects information about the goals of the lesson and the means to achieve the goal. The teacher is well aware of the following algorithm for designing didactic justification: didactic goal, type of lesson, content goals (educational, developmental, educational), teaching methods, forms of organization of students' cognitive activity, teaching aids.
The second part of the model course of the lesson, reflects the structure of the lesson, the sequence of studying the content, the logic and methods of interaction between the teacher and students.
The third part - application, contains didactic material that complements the text of the textbook, specifies the content of the educational material, the activities of the teacher and students.
The algorithm of didactic substantiation and the course of the lesson determine the logic of introspection of the results of the teacher's and student's activities. The main positive result of the training session is the optimal achievement of the goal.
The lesson can be considered as "a mirror of the teacher's general and pedagogical culture, a measure of his intellectual wealth, an indicator of his outlook, erudition" (V.A. Sukhomlinsky). From the standpoint of the system-structural and activity approaches, a lesson is primarily a system of educational tasks, the content and sequence of which reflects the logic of achieving a triune goal and the logic of a phased interaction between a teacher and students in the process of studying educational material. The structure of the lesson, the location and number of its stages (subsystems), depends on the teacher's intention, on the design of joint activities with students to achieve the goal of education and the forms of organization of students' independent cognitive activity.
1 . Teaching methods
These are the main activities of the teacher and the student, which ensure the formation of the ZUN necessary for solving educational problems.
2. Reception
This is a detail of the method, its individual operations (practical and mental), moments in the process of assimilation of ZUN. It does not have its own independent task.
3. Method system
This is not a simple set of methods and techniques, but such a combination of them, in which there are internal connections between the components, due to the effectiveness of specific methods (techniques). Taken together, they represent a management system for various methods (techniques) of students' cognition of educational material, from the acquisition of ready-made knowledge to the independent solution of cognitive tasks.
4. Method Essence
It consists in the organized method of the student's cognitive activity, in his activity, the development of cognitive forces and abilities.
5. Classification features of grouping methods:
Source of knowledge;
The nature of the student's cognitive activity;
Leadership role of the teacher;
The degree of activity of the student;
The possibility of stimulating and self-stimulating the educational activity of the student;
Conditions for control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity.
6. Methods as ways of learning
dogmatic- the acquisition of knowledge in finished form.
heuristic- the assimilation of knowledge and skills through reasoning, requiring conjecture, search, resourcefulness, which should be provided for in the question (task).
research- obtaining knowledge and skills by conducting observations, setting up experiments, measuring, by independently finding initial data, predicting the results of work.
The last two approaches are characteristic of the developing type of education.
7. Characteristics of individual groups of methods
Explanatory and illustrative reflect the activity of the teacher and the student, which consists in the fact that the teacher communicates information in different ways, using demonstrations, students perceive, comprehend and remember it. If necessary, reproduce the acquired knowledge.
reproductive contribute to the assimilation of knowledge (on the basis of memorization), skills and abilities (through a system of exercises). At the same time, the managerial activity of the teacher consists in the selection necessary instructions, algorithms and other tasks that provide multiple reproduction of knowledge and skills according to the model.
Problem-based learning methods:
problem statement, designed for student involvement
in cognitive activity in the conditions of verbal learning, when the teacher himself poses the problem, he himself shows the ways to solve it, and the students carefully follow the teacher’s thought process, reflect, experience with him and thereby join in the atmosphere of a scientifically evidence-based decision on the claim;
Didactic principles permeate the entire educational process, its content, methods, means and forms.
As follows from the above, forms of education are ways of organizing the educational process, and methods are ways of pedagogical interaction between a teacher and students. In didactics, the forms of organization of the educational process are revealed through the ways of interaction between the teacher and students in solving educational problems. They are solved through various ways of managing cognitive activity, communication, and relationships. Within the framework of the latter, the content of education, methods and means of training, educational technologies are implemented.
One and the same form of organization of training can be modified depending on the tasks and methods of training. For example, such a leading form of organizing the learning process in higher education as a lecture can be introductory, review, problematic, binary, etc.
The main organizational forms of education include: lectures, practical classes, seminars, educational conferences, consultations, colloquiums, professional trainings, educational and industrial practice, independent work of students, legal clinics, tests, exams.
Lecture(from Latin lectio - reading) - a logically consistent presentation of certain scientific knowledge to students. This is one of the main forms of the educational process and the main
method of teaching at the university. Lectures appeared in the practice of teaching in Ancient Greece and other ancient states, then became widespread in medieval universities and retained their leading role in higher education to the present day. The lecturer acts in a peculiar role of an intermediary between science and students.
It should be noted that in modern didactics there are opposing points of view regarding the effectiveness of the lecture form of education. Its supporters believe that the lecture is still both the leading teaching method and the main form of organizing the educational process at the university, since it provides an opportunity for direct communication between students and the teacher, which allows, through a living word, to arouse and maintain interest in the science being studied, to expound in in accordance with didactic principles, one or another issue of science, taking into account its latest achievements, to a certain extent dialogize the educational process and thus increase its effectiveness. The opponents give the following arguments: the lecture accustoms to the passive perception of the material presented, hinders the development of independent thinking of students, discourages independent work, accustoms to mechanical recording of the lecturer's words without proper understanding, prevents the implementation of an individual approach and has very weak opportunities for operational control over the assimilation of educational material. material.
The effectiveness of the educational lecture and its high quality ensures compliance with the following didactic requirements, which can also serve as criteria for the success of the lecture: the scientific nature and information content of the material presented; evidence and argumentation of judgments; the presence of a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples, facts, documents; emotionality, direct interest of the lecturer to the subject of presentation; activating the thinking and attention of listeners in order to ensure their empathy and the movement of thought along with the thought of the lecturer; methodically expedient structuring of the material (introduction to the topic, highlighting the main thoughts and provisions, emphasizing and repeating conclusions in various formulations); accessible, clear literary language, clarification of introduced terms and concepts, clear diction, normal speech rate, giving students the opportunity to listen, comprehend and briefly write down in-
formation; use of didactic materials and audio-visual aids.
Through the lecture, the teacher realizes his main pedagogical functions: teaching, educating, developing and organizational-stimulating.
Teaching function expressed in providing students with the basic scientific and practical information necessary for their professional activities.
Educational function involves promoting the formation of value orientations, worldview, legal awareness of students through a personalized presentation of educational material, commenting on various positions and points of view, connecting theory with practice, discussing current legally significant events.
Developmental function is implemented in direct pedagogical communication between the teacher and students, through the activation of the creative mental activity of students by posing and solving problematic issues that ensure professional and personal development.
Organizational-stimulating function provides for the organization and management of independent work of students both during the lecture and during extracurricular time, encouragement for independent in-depth study of the issues raised in the lecture.
Depending on the didactic goals and place in the educational process, the following are distinguished: types of lectures.
Introductory Lecture is read, as a rule, at the beginning of the course in order to give students a general idea of its content, place in the educational process and role in their future practical activities. The introductory lecture can be largely popular and delivered monologue. At the introductory lecture, a list of the literature necessary for the work can be given, it is explained what issues will be studied in practical classes, problems are highlighted, the solution of which will require special efforts. Experienced teachers begin the introductory lecture by explaining how students work at the lecture, taking into account the specifics of a particular subject. A short story about the history of a particular branch of science and the corresponding department, its scientific potential, the existing scientific
school in this area, the prospects for cooperation with the department.
overview lecture contains brief, largely generalized information about certain homogeneous (similar in content) program issues. These lectures are more often used at the final stages of education (for example, before state exams), as well as in correspondence and part-time forms of education.
Orientation lecture includes an overview of the main material of the subject, gives students general guidelines for independent mastery of the content of the course or its part. A lecture of this type, as a rule, has an explanatory character, possibly with the use of demonstration material. The lecturer summarizes modern ideas about the object under study, focuses students' attention on unresolved problems, expresses his own point of view, gives a scientific forecast regarding the further development of the studied branch or institution of law. In work at the correspondence department, it is recommended to use the problematic method of reading this type of lectures, while the teacher can always offer students to find answers to the problems posed in their practical activities.
current lecture serves for a systematic presentation of the educational material of the course.
Final lecture completes the study of educational material. It summarizes what has been previously studied, and considers the prospects for the development of a particular branch of science. Special attention is given to the specifics of independent work of students in the pre-examination period.
Depending on the method of conducting, the following types of lectures can be distinguished.
Information lecture uses an explanatory and illustrative method of presentation. This is the most traditional type of lecture in higher education.
Problem lecture is a lecture lesson that involves the teacher engaging the audience in solving a serious scientific problem that determines the topic of the lesson. In each educational and installation material, the lecturer touches on the essence of a particular scientific problem, reveals possible ways to solve it, shows the theoretical and practical significance of achievements, i.e. each lecture
is somewhat problematic. It is desirable to purposefully include at least one completely problematic lecture in the lecture course. This is simply necessary in those cases when the scientific team of the department has been studying a particular scientific problem for many years. Naturally, he has original, and possibly unique scientific data. Reading problematic lectures is of great didactic importance and attracts students as potential researchers to solve pressing problems of science.
Visualization Lecture involves the visual presentation of material by technical teaching aids (audio-video equipment, etc.) with the development or brief commentary on the visual materials shown.
We can name the following types of lecture-visualization.
Video lecture This is a videotaped lecture by a teacher. It can be supplemented with multimedia applications illustrating the presentation of the lecture. Such additions not only enrich the content of the lecture, but also make its presentation more lively and attractive to students. The undoubted advantage of this method of presenting theoretical material is the ability to view and (or) listen to a lecture at any convenient time, repeatedly referring to the most difficult places. Video lectures can be delivered to training centers on video cassettes or CDs.
Multimedia lecture. For independent work on lecture material, students can use interactive computer training programs. These are textbooks in which the theoretical material, thanks to the use of multimedia tools, is structured so that each student can choose for himself the best way to study the material, a convenient pace of work on the course and a way of studying that best suits the psychophysical characteristics of his perception. The learning effect in such programs is achieved not only due to the content, but also through the use, for example, of testing programs that allow the student to assess the degree of assimilation of theoretical educational material.
Binary lecture (lecture-dialogue) provides for the presentation of the material in the form of a dialogue between two teachers, for example,
scientist and practitioner, representatives of two scientific directions
Lecture-provocation(a lecture with pre-planned errors) is designed to encourage students to constantly monitor the information provided and search for errors. At the end of the lecture, the students' knowledge is diagnosed and the mistakes made are analyzed.
Lecture-conference is carried out as a scientific and practical lesson with listening to reports and speeches of students on a predetermined problem within the framework of the curriculum. In conclusion, the teacher sums up, supplements and clarifies the information, formulates the main conclusions.
Lecture-consultation involves the presentation of the material in the form of "questions-answers" or "questions-answers-discussion".
Consider questions methods of preparing and reading lectures.
The preparation of a lecture begins with the development by the teacher of the structure of the working lecture course in a particular discipline. The guide here should be working programm, taking into account the specifics of the content of education in a particular educational institution. The work program is dynamic, and each teacher has the opportunity to make changes to it. The curriculum and work program serve as the basis for the development of the lecture course.
The structure of the lecture course usually includes introductory, main and final parts. The number of lectures in one part or another is determined taking into account the total number of hours allotted for lecture work and the specifics of the structure of the branch of law under study.
After determining the structure of the lecture course, you can begin to prepare a particular lecture. The lecture process involves the following steps:
Selection of material for lectures, drawing up a plan of lectures, lists of basic and additional literature;
Determination of the volume and content of the lecture, the study of fundamental sources;
Choice of sequence and logic of presentation, writing a summary;
Selection of illustrative material;
Developing a manner of lecturing.
The choice of material for a lecture is determined by its topic. To select the material, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the current legislation and by-laws, authoritative commentaries on the current laws and problematic articles in periodicals. Further, the lecturer should carefully familiarize himself with the content of the topic in the basic educational literature used by students in order to find out which aspects of the problem under study are well stated, which data are outdated and require correction. It is useful to think about the generalizations that need to be made, highlight controversial views and clearly form your point of view on them. The lecturer needs to analyze the state of the problem presented in the textbook from modern positions, draw up a lecture plan and start creating an extended lecture plan.
Determining the scope and content of a lecture is an important stage in its preparation, which determines the pace of presentation of the material. This is due to the limited time frame that determines the teaching hours for each discipline. It is not recommended to follow the path of planning the reading of all the material provided for by the program at lectures to the detriment of the completeness of the presentation of the main issues. The lecture should contain as much information as can be learned by the audience in the allotted time. The lecture needs to be unloaded from part of the material, transferring it to independent study. This material, along with the lecture material, must be submitted for examination. At the same time, as experience shows, the amount of time allotted for independent work should not exceed 30-40% of the lecture time. If the lecture is well prepared, but overloaded with factual material, then it will be ineffective and will not achieve its goal. In addition, when choosing the volume of a lecture, it is necessary to take into account the ability of the "average" student to write down the information that, in the opinion of the teacher, he must necessarily learn.
When starting to address the issue of the volume and content of the lecture, one should take into account a number of special, specific features of this type of lesson, including the didactic characteristics of the lecture. The lecture is an integral part of the system of training sessions and should be meaningfully linked to their complex, to the nature of the academic discipline, as well as to the educational opportunities of other forms of education.
Lecture teaching lays the foundations of scientific knowledge, provides a theoretical basis for the studied branch of law, introduces students to the research methodology, and indicates the direction of their work in all other forms and methods of training.
The selection of illustrative material can be an important stage in the preparation of a lecture. Tables, transparencies, drawings, diagrams must not only be carefully selected, but also determined and recorded in their sequence when reading a lecture. You can bring to the attention of students, for example, real constituent documents of a legal entity, certain forms of documents reflecting the contractual relations of the parties, etc. At the same time, such materials are intended only for viewing by students, a more thorough study of them during the lecture is not expected.
The choice of the sequence and logic of the presentation of the material is the next stage of work on the lecture. When drawing up a lecture plan, it is better to single out independent sections, after each of them it is desirable to make generalizations. Highlight the information on which you want to focus the attention of the audience. Determining the logic of constructing a lecture, one should clearly define what method of presentation is needed - induction, deduction or analogy.
The inductive method consists in moving from the particular to the general. Induction can be complete when a generalization is made from the analysis of all without exception the characteristics, parameters or other data about the phenomenon under study or about the subject. Its disadvantage is that it is cumbersome, since sometimes it is necessary to operate with a large amount of data. Therefore, incomplete induction is more common, when generalizations are made on the basis of some (not exhaustive, but sufficient) data.
The deductive method of presentation consists in moving from the general to the particular. Deduction is used if some general pattern is known and, on its basis, individual manifestations of this pattern are subject to analysis.
The analogy method is based on making a conclusion about the phenomenon under study by similarity with other known phenomena. This similarity can be established by several signs, which must be significant and characterize the phenomenon from different angles. Drawing an analogy, it is necessary to establish the development of the phenomena under consideration, which can
favors the objectivity of the analysis. The use of superficial signs of analogy should be avoided, as this can lead to a typical error called "false analogy".
The final stage of work on the text of the lecture is its design. The vast majority of novice lecturers draw up the selected materials in the form of abstracts. More experienced teachers manage with thesis notes and plans. In the pedagogical literature, it is also recommended to use the lecture model (extended lecture plan), which is used when giving a lecture.
The development of an individual manner of reading a lecture is an extremely important and long period in preparation for a lecture session. First of all, you should never read the text of a lecture. We must strive to maintain an active dialogue with the audience, keep ourselves at ease, freely, confidently, move around the audience, making sure that students have time to record the lecture. It is advisable to repeat the most important provisions, periodically change the timbre of the voice, logical stresses, thus showing the importance of a section, thought, conclusion or generalization. This should be thought out in advance when preparing a lecture, noted in the lecture model, for example, by emphasizing certain blocks of the lecture with colored felt-tip pens.
It is known that students are often well informed about the lecturer who has not yet begun to read his course, and about the course itself. If a teacher gives his course every year, then a certain traditional attitude of the audience is formed, which in a certain sense determines the success of the teacher. The audience evaluates the lecturer by his professional skills, his knowledge, his contribution to science and social activities. We must not forget that students are often inclined to criticize the miscalculations of the teacher.
Therefore, entering the audience, the lecturer should think about his image, purposefully exerting a thoughtful psychological impact on the audience, which forms the style of communication and reduces the passivity of the audience. It is important for the teacher from the very beginning to outline to the students the level of requirements for them in joint learning activities.
The lecturer, standing at the pulpit, prepares the audience for the lecture, adjusts its attention. It is important to remember that attention is the motivation to assimilate and remember information. Every student should know well that if attention is not focused
cheno, then the memorization mechanisms do not come into action. That is why you should never start a lecture without focusing the attention of the audience. A simple and effective technique to achieve this goal is the traditional greeting of the teacher, the presentation of the topic, tasks and lecture plan, and an intriguing introduction.
If for some reason the student did not hear or understand the essence of the topic under discussion, oral questions are undesirable. This violates the harmony of the presentation of the material and distracts the neighbor's attention, turning off the mechanisms for storing information. In this case, you need to leave free space in your notebook and restore the missing fragment after the end of the lecture or during a break. Often the lecturer himself is to blame for misunderstanding, who must strive for a high quality of oral speech. For example, in private law disciplines, without prior speech training, it can be difficult to pronounce such terms as “forfaiting”, “delcredere”, “franchising”, etc.
Particular attention should be paid to the requirements for taking notes of lectures. In the methodological literature, there are no uniform rules on how to record a lecture. It depends on the individual characteristics of the requirements of teachers and the individual qualities of the personality of students. In this regard, students can be conditionally divided into four groups.
The first group listens attentively to the lecturer, analyzes the information and takes notes. This is the most The best way comprehension and fixation of lecture material. The second tries to write down the text of the lecture almost verbatim, sometimes without even delving into its content. The third listens attentively, analyzes, but does not take any notes. These are, as a rule, people with a good memory, on which they make the main bet. The fourth one does not listen to anything, often does other things, violates the business environment and discipline.
The teacher should make every effort to find ways to constructively influence each of the groups. Often, many students do not have the elementary skills of learning activities in a lecture. Therefore, the teacher needs to eliminate such gaps.
In the absence of supporting abstracts (abstracts with a printed basis), students must keep notes, the main task
which - to promote the work of the motor component of memory and in-depth assimilation and processing of educational material.
Forming a culture of keeping lecture notes is an important pedagogical task. The abstract is useful when it is initially focused on the simultaneous listening to a lecture and mental processing of the material, on highlighting and fixing the main content of the lecture in a thesis-reasoned form. It is important to bear in mind that students, as a rule, spontaneously develop the so-called scribe style, i.e., the desire to write down all the lecture material as fully as possible, which does not contribute to its deep understanding and assimilation.
A necessary condition for the effectiveness of the lecture is the speech skills of the lecturer. The rich, emotionally colored language of presentation, the form of presentation is not only the decoration of the lecture, but also an important guideline for the perception of its content. The meaning of communication is in the received reaction. Unfortunately, adequate perception is not always the case, it largely depends on the experience of the lecturer, which makes it possible to achieve correspondence of perception to what has been said. For example, the phrase "A good law passed" can be said enthusiastically, threateningly, or sarcastically, depending on how the lecturer wants to evoke the audience. To fix semantic supports, students can be recommended to use a set of felt-tip pens or markers.
Students should be required to arrive at the lecture a few minutes before it starts. Being late for a lecture and entering the classroom after the lecturer is not allowed by most experienced teachers. When starting a lecture, it is not recommended to make a long introduction that is not related to the topic of the lecture.
It is advisable to start the introductory part of the lecture with the formulation of its topic and purpose in order to avoid its declarativeness and uncertainty in the presentation of the material. The report of the lecture plan provides 10-12% more complete memorization of the material than in the same lecture, but without the announcement of the plan.
There is an opinion that a lecture succeeds or fails in the first 10 minutes. Therefore, the ability to capture the attention of listeners already in the introductory part is very important. Often, especially at the beginning of the course, students are wary of meeting the teacher. Therefore, experienced lecturers begin the introductory part with bright, understandable facts related to the content of the subject and
capable of arousing interest in their personality and the discipline they read.
To attract the attention of the audience at the beginning of the lecture, it is recommended to use the following techniques:
Emphasizing the general interest in the problem under discussion;
quoting from official documents, works of scientists, which expresses the essence of the issue;
highlighting inconsistencies, paradoxes in order to puzzle the audience and make them think about the problem;
sharpening the issue in order to reveal the direct attitude of listeners to the content of the statement made;
an extremely brief presentation of existing positions regarding the problem under discussion and a presentation of one's own point of view, followed by the involvement of students in the discussion;
a technique when the lecturer immediately “puts a question with an edge”, to which he is going to give an answer in his lecture;
showing a short fragment from a documentary or slides illustrating the topic of the lecture;
enumeration of measures taken to solve the problem under discussion, which did not lead to the desired results.
It is necessary to use the first 15-20 minutes as efficiently as possible - the period of "deep" attention of the listeners. Then comes fatigue and a decrease in attention. The maximum drop in the efficiency of students is noted by many researchers by about the 40th minute of the lecture. To overcome this critical period, the lecturer should have his own techniques in his arsenal. It is possible to switch to a playful tone of presentation. You can ask the audience a question and ask any student to answer it. You can read any quote and at this time allow the listeners to do a minute gymnastics for the fingers.
every student. Therefore, the most important material in the lecture should be repeated, creating some redundancy of educational information.
The attention of students splits between cognitive activity and writing notes. The teacher must be able to weaken the second by strengthening the first. Otherwise, the creative process of perception will be reduced. At the beginning of a lecture, attention is usually involuntary. The task of the lecturer is to captivate the audience and turn involuntary attention into arbitrary. This is usually achieved through arousing and maintaining the interest of the audience in the lecture and involves:
the inclusion of all theoretical judgments in the system of specific examples and concepts familiar to students, illustrating the connection of the material presented with practice;
appeal to parallel reading disciplines;
illustration of the significance of a particular discipline in the system of scientific knowledge;
an appeal to the direct interests of the audience (“Term papers will be based on the main provisions of today’s lecture ...”, “Material on this topic is not available in the existing textbooks that you use to prepare for exams ...”, etc.).
Helps to keep the attention of the audience and the return of the lecturer to the core idea.
It should be noted that even now the educational board remains an important and in many ways universal means of visualization, the use of which also has its own rules and advantages. It is important to remember that the audience first pays attention to what How written, and then What written on the board. The board should be filled from left to right and from top to bottom as we write on a piece of paper. The usual dimensions of the boards are such that when using the lowest part of the board, some students in a large auditorium are forced to rise from their seats, so this part boards should be used as little as possible.
It should be remembered that what is depicted on the board, as a rule, is transferred by the audience to the notes. Therefore, information should be presented on the board in the form of simplified diagrams that reduce the risk of confusion in them and incorrectly copied.
wat. The most important words should be highlighted with a frame, a different color or otherwise.
Recording silently is undesirable, as it loses contact with the audience and wastes time. It makes more sense to start explaining at the same time as writing. It is necessary that students first understand the essence of what is depicted, and only after that they begin to redraw it into a summary. While wiping the board, you should simultaneously continue your speech.
In the practice of foreign higher education at lectures, the board is almost completely replaced by overhead projectors (codoscopes), which are becoming more and more popular in our country. These projection devices have important advantages from a didactic point of view. They are compact, easy to use, have a very high luminous flux, which allows you to display an image in a lit room without significant darkening. Didactic material is prepared in advance in the form of separate sheets of a transparent film (folio) with printed inscriptions and drawings. As needed, the foils are superimposed on the frame window and the image is projected onto the screen. Folios can be superimposed on one another, which makes it possible to consistently build the final picture from partial images, including those painted in different colors. VCRs, computers and interactive whiteboards are now widely used.
To increase the cognitive activity of students, the lecturer can use a number of techniques:
posing questions to students - rhetorical or requiring an answer;
the inclusion of elements of conversation in the lecture;
a proposal to formulate certain provisions or definitions;
dividing the audience into micro-groups that hold brief discussions and share their results;
use of handouts, including abstracts with a printed basis, etc.
An increase in the cognitive activity of students is facilitated by the ability of the lecturer to intelligibly answer questions. At a lecture, when answering questions, the importance of the features of public speaking does not decrease: it is better to give an answer immediately, clearly and based on the reaction of the entire audience, largely impromptu. One bad answer can ruin the impression
from the whole lecture. There is a widespread opinion among students, not without reason, that the teacher's erudition is most clearly manifested in answers to questions.
It is necessary to carefully think over the final part of the lecture, repeat its provisions, and start with them at the next lecture. The final part of the lecture involves summing up, summarizing the material read and already familiar from the material independently studied by students, etc. The goal here is also to orient students to independent work. For this, literature on the issues under study can be recommended, it is explained which questions are submitted for practical classes, and which ones need to be studied independently. At the very end of the lecture, students' questions should be answered, possibly received in the form of notes (students should be warned about this possibility in advance). With students who have shown interest in the topic of the lecture, it is advisable to talk after it ends, invite them to a consultation to continue the conversation. When answering naive or ridiculous questions, one must spare the student's pride, the slightest tactlessness can lead to loss of contact with the audience. You can teach people something only by maintaining good relations with them.
Feedback from the lecturer and the audience is carried out in order to control the strength of the assimilation of knowledge. The first function of such control is a way for the lecturer to get an idea about the educational process in order to make the necessary adjustments. The second is a way of psychological influence on students, activating their productive activity.
When giving a lecture, current control is carried out spontaneously according to the type of non-verbal feedback, i.e. those signals that the listener demonstrates to the lecturer without realizing it (views, expressions of surprise, recall, etc.). Verbal, intentional feedback can be provided at the lecture, mainly by frontal (universal and simultaneous) survey. In classrooms equipped with modern computer systems, the organization of such work does not cause any particular difficulties.
The best option is when the teaching department of the lecture room is equipped with a computer, in front of each student is a laptop, which immediately receives the lecture material. Feedback allows you to check immediately after the lecture how students have mastered the educational material. For this
they must complete several tasks within five to seven minutes, the results of these tasks are immediately received
into the teacher's computer along with the name of the student being checked. A rating is immediately built on the lecturer's monitor - at the head of the list are the names of students who correctly completed all the tasks, then as the number of correct answers decreases. If desired, these results can be displayed on a large screen for everyone to see.
In the absence of such conditions, handouts can be used - cards, tests on forms, etc., which the lecturer distributes before the survey and collects after it. The distribution and collection of cards in a stream of 100 students, as experience shows, lasts only 5 minutes, the execution of control tasks by students takes 10-12 minutes.
The organization of the current control of progress requires the division of educational material into relatively small parts. When determining the rational size of these parts, they are guided by two factors: the interval between adjacent surveys (the frequency of surveys) and the content of the task in accordance with the system of breaking the course of lectures into topics. Experience shows that the rational interval corresponds, on average, to one survey per six to eight hours of lectures. At the same time, it is desirable that each survey includes one topic in its entirety or one part of it that has independent significance.
Thus, the lecture is the main organizational form of education at the university, aimed at the primary acquisition of knowledge. The main purpose of the lecture is to provide a theoretical basis for learning, develop students' interest in learning activities and a specific academic discipline, and form guidelines for independent work. Traditionally, a lecture has undoubted advantages not only as a way for students to receive educational information, but also as a method of emotional educational influence of a teacher on students, which increases their cognitive activity. This is achieved due to the pedagogical skills of the lecturer, his high professional culture and oratory. At the same time, the lecturer must take into account the psychology of the audience, the patterns of perception, attention, thinking and the emotional state of the audience.
Here are some tips for young teachers, which I formulated in a joking manner based on my extensive experience.
St. Petersburg professor Yu. G. Schneider in response to the question of how to become a good lecturer 45 .
Take the introductory lecture very seriously; do not give reason to throw out one letter "v" from its name.
Trying to force respect for your subject, do not belittle others.
From the very first lecture, do not try to seem either strict or kind - remain yourself, provided, of course, that you yourself are a worthy person.
Do everything so that students feel the system in the presentation of the course, impromptu are good only in examples, illustrations and answers to questions.
When choosing the pace of presentation, do not focus on either the slug or the sprinter; the first will make most of the audience, and even you yourself, get bored, and you yourself may not keep up with the second.
Do not overestimate the interest of students in your lectures - this may prevent you from preparing better for them.
Do not let late students into the classroom, but only if you are not late yourself.
Don't rely on students not respecting your subject to respect you.
Take the time to explain the basics; read better less, but deeper.
From the very first lecture, let students know that they will have a good summary - the incentive is not the best, but powerful.
Read passionately, so that it doesn’t happen like this: “The lecturer was slowly but surely falling asleep - the audience was far ahead of him.”
Do not broadcast, do not read - talk.
Read not so fast that words overtake thoughts, but also not so slow that thoughts get bored without words.
Read with enthusiasm, but without false pathos, and do not forget about the program.
Looking at the lecture notes, make it clear that you are doing this only in order not to disturb the harmony of the presentation and the student's notes.
Where and when it is only possible, express your attitude to the stated issue. There is nothing worse if students feel that you are telling them today about what you yourself read yesterday.
Do not threaten to meet at the exam - the reception is prohibited. - There are three types of evidence: direct, from the opposite, from the evil one. It is better to prove nothing than to prove using the third type of evidence.
Read not only about what was and is, but also about what should be and will be.
Don't try to entertain the students - they're better at it.
Try to give at least a pathetic, but impromptu, related to what you are presenting at the moment. This is top class. But the trouble is if they guess or suspect that the impromptu is prepared in advance.
To illustrate what is stated, give examples from an area close to the students, but not necessarily related to the scholarship.
Try to make students partners in the learning process - ask questions, ask for opinions, discuss answers, options for solutions.
Do not be touched and do not be proud if you managed to pull the two-man to the three and lower the five-man to the four.
If you cannot light the torch of knowledge, then conscientiously try to fill the vessel with them.
“Live a century, learn a century - you will die a fool” - this is not for you. Learn by all means, do not be afraid to die a fool.
Keep learning, otherwise you will only teach what you yourself know at the moment, and this, as a rule, is not so much.
Do everything so that regular wits (and there are always such wits on the stream) do not want to put you in an awkward position.
Do not duplicate the material, and even more so the witticisms.
In any situation, do not lose your temper if you do not want to give students the pleasure of making sure that the lecturer is a person.
Always be the master of the situation, if you do not own the audience, then it owns you.
Do not be touched if one or two students from a stream of 150 people show interest in your subject and ask one or two questions, and then just before the exam.
Do not go into the soul of a student until he invited you there.
Do not interfere with students at the lecture to declare their love - this will only warm up their passion.
Do not bring to assault, it, as in production, leads to marriage.
Practical lessons, like lectures, are essential elements of the educational process in law schools. The purpose of the practical classes is to deepen, expand the detail of the knowledge gained in lectures, develop professionally significant skills and abilities. They are held after two or three lectures and logically continue the educational work begun at the lecture. Practical classes contribute to the development of professional thinking and culture of speech of students, including the possession of legal terminology, allow you to check the acquired knowledge, act as a means of operational feedback.
It is necessary that the plans of practical classes correspond to the direction of the lecture course and be correlated with it in the sequence of topics studied. They are common to all teachers after discussion and approval at a meeting of the department. The lecturer is recommended to conduct practical classes in one or two groups, attend classes of assistants to coordinate the work of lecturers and teachers conducting practical classes. Between lectures and practical classes, independent work of students is planned to study special literature, normative documents, lecture notes. In practical classes, students acquire the skills of applying legal norms to specific situations, interpreting normative documents, the ability to find the necessary norms among numerous legal acts, and also get the opportunity to show their own individuality, independent thinking, and the ability to defend their position.
Methodology for conducting practical classes due to their purpose and the time allocated for them according to the curriculum. The methodology of a practical lesson can be different, in many respects it depends on the individuality of the teacher, his pedagogical experience and the degree of preparation for his pro-
keeping. As noted in the methodological literature, no matter how rich the teacher's experience may be, he must still prepare for each practical lesson 46 .
Preparing a teacher for a practical lesson includes the following steps:
study of the topic of the lesson with the involvement of the latest regulatory materials, judicial practice, special literature;
solving all given tasks in order to avoid surprises and be ready to answer any questions related to the content of each task;
drawing up a plan for conducting a practical lesson, in which it should be determined how much time is required for each stage of the lesson: introduction, discussion of theoretical issues, problem solving, summing up;
determination of students who need to be interviewed on this topic in order to ensure the equal participation of all students in educational activities and to test their knowledge, skills;
thinking over and defining tasks for independent work of students for the next lesson, in particular, the selection of tasks in such a way that on their basis it would be possible to discuss the most important issues of the next topic.
The structure of practical classes usually includes the following elements: the so-called organizational moment (the teacher welcomes students, makes notes in the journal about absentees, finds out whether all students have prepared for the lesson, announces its topic and plan); answers to students' questions on obscure material; the main part (discussion of theoretical issues and problem solving); Summing up (the teacher evaluates the work of the entire group, announces and comments on the grades, notes the successes and shortcomings in the work of specific students, gives a task for the next lesson).
The main part of the practical lesson is devoted to the optimal combination of problem solving with a discussion of theoretical issues, and most of the time is taken up by solving problems, and it is recommended to allocate 15-20 minutes for a discussion of theoretical issues during two-hour sessions. Discussion
theoretical questions are possible in different forms: student reports, problem solving, theoretical seminar.
The teacher needs to explain to the students what requirements the report should meet. After formulating the topic of the report, one should name the authors whose works were used, state the plan of the report and briefly consider the issues outlined, referring to the sources, citing the statements of the authors and, if possible, demonstrating their position.
The solution of problems must be written, contain the questions posed and detailed answers to them in the student's notebook. As S. M. Korneev emphasizes, teaching students to solve problems only on the basis of well-posed questions, according to a clear plan, has the most important methodological significance. Each fact or event mentioned in the task, as a rule, requires a legal assessment by raising related questions (for example, whether the contract was concluded; whether the requirements for the form of the contract were met; whether this condition is material; whether the plaintiff's claim for compensation to him is justified losses, etc.). A clear answer (yes, no) must be given to each of the questions, and always with reference to the norm of the law. At the same time, the student must show how he applies this rule, give its interpretation, in appropriate cases, refer to the explanation of this rule contained in the decisions of the Plenums of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Plenums of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation, as well as its doctrinal interpretation. A student who has mastered this technique acquires a very valuable experience in effectively solving professional problems.
An important pedagogical value is the attitude of the teacher to the student speaking at the practical lesson. It is unacceptable to interrupt a student, give offensive characteristics to his performance, and even more so to his personality. The student must be listened to calmly and patiently; in the course of his speech, only in exceptional cases can a brief remark be made that he deviated from the essence of the task, made an erroneous reference to the law, incorrectly named some state body, etc. After the student’s speech a friendly discussion is held with summing up the results of the discussion by the teacher and his objective assessment of the solutions proposed by the students.
During the practical lesson, the teacher tactfully corrects the language mistakes of students, achieving a competent pronunciation of legal terms, for example, "dogs". O r”, “Iskov A I'm old", "op e ka", "mind e rshy", "the case was initiated O ”, “judgment e ny", "ensure e chenie".
As an example, we will cite the methodological requirements for conducting practical classes from the already mentioned "Collection of educational and methodological materials on civil law", published by the Department of Civil Law of Moscow State University 47 .
1. The main attention during practical classes should be given to developing students' skills in applying the legislation governing this species relations, as well as resolutions of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation and other bodies.
Along with this, when conducting classes, attention should be paid to theoretical issues, especially on complex topics. Theoretical questions are considered either independently or in connection with the solution of specific cases. Discussion of theoretical issues will force students not only to prepare for solving problems, but also to prepare for the topic as a whole. It is advisable to devote up to 15-20 minutes to theoretical questions. If necessary, theoretical issues can be devoted most of classes, and sometimes the class as a whole (for example, to discuss a work or article). On some topics, theoretical seminars are specially provided.
Cases given to students for preparation at home and theoretical questions for discussion in practical classes should be carefully thought out in order to cover, as far as possible, all important aspects of the topic. The number of incidents asked depends on the topic and the complexity of their solution, but usually it is at least three or four. It is also necessary to name the latest regulations and publications that have appeared since the publication of the workshop.
The solution of problems by students must be set out in writing in a special notebook for practical classes in civil law, about which students are warned at the first lesson. Notebooks are checked by the teacher. For each incident, the student must ask questions,
arising from the content of the task. Questions should be formulated legally competently, and the answers to them should be substantiated by theoretical provisions (where necessary) and references to legislative norms. It is necessary to require that the student fully and correctly indicate in the notebooks and when answering all the necessary data about the normative act and the specific norm applied in solving the incident (name of the normative act, article number, part, paragraph, etc., content of the norm, source of publication) . If the student does not have the relevant normative act in the classroom, he is obliged to write out all these data in a notebook when solving the problem and use them in the classroom. The absence of a written solution to incidents is considered as failure to complete homework.
The teacher for each lesson must also have a written solution to the problems, with questions and answers to them.
When solving problems in practical classes, the student must tell the content of the incident in his own words, and not read the incident. The teacher evaluates how well and competently the student "reported the case."
It is desirable to involve as many students as possible in solving each problem. One should not strive to ensure that this problem is completely solved by one student, it is necessary to stimulate discussions, especially on controversial issues in theory and practice. However, avoidance of questions arising from the task should not be allowed. The correct decision should be a logical conclusion from the joint discussion of all issues under the guidance of the teacher.
The teacher gives a conclusion on the solution of each incident separately. At the same time, students who correctly solved the problem are noted, and it is also indicated why certain answers are incorrect.
Students who missed classes (regardless of the reasons), do not have a written solution to problems or have not prepared for this practical lesson, are required to come to the teacher's consultation no later than two weeks and report on the topic studied in the lesson. Students who have not reported on each topic that they have not worked out in the classroom by the beginning of the credit session do not receive credit for the corresponding semester.
9. The work of each student in practical classes is noted by the teacher in his notebook and is necessarily taken into account during the test and at exams. If the teacher does not take the exam in his group, he reports to the examiner the data on the work of each student throughout the year.
10. The above requirements for conducting practical classes are explained to students in the first lesson in the second year and are reminded in the first lesson in the third year.
In the first or second lesson in the second year, it is advisable to give an example of a case solution (with all questions and answers to it, with references to the law), so that students write down this solution as a model.
In addition, in the first lesson in the second year, you should:
a) tell in detail about the goals and objectives of studying the course of civil law, about the breadth and complexity of civil legislation, about the importance of its systematic and purposeful study in all forms (lectures, textbooks, independent work, practical exercises, consultations, term papers, participation in student scientific circle);
b) introduce students to legal journals and publications such as Bulletin of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, Bulletin of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation, Bulletin of normative acts of ministries and departments of the Russian Federation, which they will have to use in class and when writing term papers;
c) tell how to write and arrange term papers;
d) tell about the department of civil law;
e) get to know the group, in particular, ask which of the students work, what ideas they have about their future work, who lives in the hostel, write down the home phone number of the head of the group, etc.
1. The objectives of the introductory session with second-year students in civil law are to,
get to know the students of the group;
to familiarize students with the requirements of the department for students in civil law;
to disclose to students the civil law training program;
reveal the knowledge of students acquired by them in the first year, especially in the theory of state and law;
explain to students the requirements that will be presented to them in seminars;
familiarize them with the procedure for conducting tests and (or) exams in civil law.
Familiarization of the teacher with the group should mean personal acquaintance with each student of the group. It is important to conduct this acquaintance informally, not to be limited to a roll call on the list, but to talk with each student, trying to identify his academic performance, desire to engage in a particular area of jurisprudence, prospects for his future work, etc. It is especially important to pay attention to the student's attitude to a foreign language : what language studied, what is the level of language training. It is necessary to carefully look at the student from the point of view of his general development: whether he reads and what kind of literature, periodicals, what are his interests in the field of culture, and so on. In other words, it should be a conversation aimed at getting the student to normal communication with the teacher. The teacher is obliged to take care of establishing such contacts from the very first lesson. It is necessary to immediately abandon the "command", and conduct a conversation with the student as an equal, but obliged to fulfill certain requirements of the department.
Particular attention should be paid to familiarizing students with the requirements of the department for the study of civil law. The main principle here should be to make it clear to students that they can acquire knowledge only by themselves, by their own work, and the role of the teacher is to help them acquire such knowledge. In this case, the main requirement is knowledge of the subject. But this does not mean mere memorization of the wording of the law or the textbook. It is necessary to educate creative people - future professional lawyers who can independently think and find various solutions to difficult life issues. It should be firmly stated that they will not "mess around" with idlers: a person who has received a university diploma must be a highly qualified lawyer, and not a half-educated person.
It is very important to explain to students the civil law curriculum and the nature of the classes at the very first lesson. It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that only in a combination of all forms of civil law classes can one obtain the required level of knowledge. It is especially necessary to say
about lectures that some students neglect. After all, only at a lecture do they receive a system of the knowledge that they need. It is important to emphasize the need for a systematic approach to the study of such a complex subject as civil law. It is advisable to say more about specialization, and here to mention term papers and theses. It should be emphasized that useless, rewritten "from sources" term papers and theses cannot receive a positive assessment. It should be said about the relationship between the topics of term papers and theses.
5. Particular attention should be paid to the requirements that will be presented to the student at the seminars. The basis here should be an approximate plan for conducting seminars. You can try not only to offer students those forms of classes that are provided for by the schedule, but also to use, if possible, the suggestions of the students themselves.
It is necessary to explain to students the importance of studying civil law in the second year, where they must learn the general, fundamental categories of civil law, which they will need in the further study of both civil law and many other disciplines (family, procedural, labor law, etc.).
When conducting an introductory lesson, it is recommended to set aside time to find out what and how students learned from the first year material, paying special attention to topics such as the concept of law, legal relations, the operation of laws in time, space and circle of persons, the concept of imperativeness and dispositivity norms, etc. Of course, one should not expect deep answers here: experience shows that students do not know very well what they learned in the first year. It is necessary to let them know that it is necessary to repeat something from the past. For example, you can raise the issue of the bodies that are associated with the consideration of civil cases, check at least a general idea of the legal system.
One of the objectives of the introductory lesson is to explain the procedure for extending credits and exams in civil law and the requirements of the teachers of the department. Of course, as before, a "set-off-machine" is possible. But it should be explained that such a credit is possible under the following conditions: the student must regularly attend classes; who missed the lesson, regardless of the reasons, must hand over this topic for a consultation
tions; the student must actively work in the classroom (it is important for the teacher to keep a record of the student's work in the semester). It is especially necessary to pay attention to the reports of students in the classroom, their active participation in collective discussions.
Speaking of exams, it must be emphasized that the exam in civil law can be held without tickets. The program is the main thing for the student. It is necessary to warn students that the questions on the exam will be formulated by the examiner in strict accordance with the program.
8. At the end of the lesson, it is necessary to give students a task for the next lesson and tell how tasks will be determined in the future. As a rule, the teacher calls the numbers of the problems, indicates the normative acts necessary for solving the problems (in addition to those given in the workshop), recommends new publications. There can be both general tasks for all students, and special tasks for individual students, for example, to make a report about a new article in a journal, about a new law, etc.
When conducting a seminar in the form of a "round table" or discussing a monograph, a law or its draft, the tasks should be worked out by the teacher most carefully. The same is required when conducting business games, which, as a rule, should be prepared in advance, several months (weeks) before they are held. The teacher should work with each group participating in the business game and suggest a method for preparing for such a lesson. It is advisable to solve one simple incident (problem) from the workshop as a model, formulating and writing down on the board possible questions and answers to them with reference to the legislation, and allow students to write down this solution.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the order of work in the introductory lesson may be different than indicated in the recommendations. The logic and methodology of the lesson is chosen by the teacher himself, guided by didactic goals and objectives.
Seminar(from lat. seminarium - nursery) - a form of the educational process, built on independent study by students on the instructions of the head of individual issues, problems, followed by presentation in the form of reports and their joint discussion. The seminar, unlike practical classes, is more theoretical in nature and is intended for in-depth
studying a certain discipline or its section, mastering the methodology of scientific knowledge. It orients students towards the manifestation of greater independence in educational and cognitive activities, contributes to the consolidation of their knowledge, since during the seminar the knowledge gained as a result of independent work on primary sources, documents, additional literature is systematized, deepened and controlled. The main goal of the seminars is to provide students with the opportunity to master the skills and abilities of using theoretical knowledge in relation to the characteristics of the industry being studied.
The main didactic tasks of the seminars: the development of students' creative professional thinking; increasing educational and cognitive motivation; mastery of the language of law, the skills of operating the categorical-conceptual apparatus of jurisprudence; mastering the skills and abilities of setting and solving professional problems; formation of the ability to argue one's point of view; deepening, systematization, consolidation and control of knowledge, turning them into beliefs.
Three types of seminars are distinguished depending on the main target setting:
seminar for in-depth study of a specific training course, thematically strongly related to the material of this course;
seminar for a thorough study of the most important and methodologically typical topics of the course or one topic
research seminar for the scientific development of individual topical problems, which can be transformed into a special seminar.
Special Seminar It is usually held in senior years and is a school of communication for novice researchers on a specific problem under the guidance of an authoritative scientist. An experienced leader creates an atmosphere of scientific co-creation, orients students towards collective mental activity, uses effective methods research work. At the final lesson, the teacher, as a rule, makes a complete review of student scientific papers, sums up, reveals the prospects for further research on the issues raised and the possibility of interested students participating in them.
Seminars are closely related to lectures, however, the educational material of the seminars does not duplicate the lecture material, although it retains a close connection with its fundamental provisions. The leading role of the teacher is manifested in the careful planning of educational work, the allocation of significant issues for discussion at the seminar, the selection of literature for self-study, and the management of the discussion process. As a rule, no more than four or five fundamental questions of the topic are submitted to seminars.
Depending on the method of conducting, the following types of seminars are distinguished.
Seminar-talk involves preparation for the lesson of all students on all issues of the seminar plan, allows you to involve the maximum number of participants in an active discussion of the topic. After a short introduction by the teacher, detailed reports of several students on specific issues of the plan are heard, which are supplemented by the speeches of other students, then all the speeches are discussed, and the teacher makes a conclusion.
Seminar-discussion, or a seminar-dispute provides an opportunity for dialogical communication of participants for the purpose of collective discussion and solution of a problem. The most topical issues of the studied discipline are submitted for discussion. Participants in the discussion learn to accurately formulate their thoughts, actively defend their own point of view, and argue with reason. The most adequate form of the seminar session proved to be a discussion on the basis of a "round table" with the appropriate location of all participants. At the same time, it is important to teach students the culture of communication and interaction, so that through dialogue there is a joint development of the topic of discussion.
Mixed Seminar Form combines the discussion of reports, free speeches of participants, scheduled discussions.
Pedagogical guidance in preparing students for the seminar consists in the fact that the teacher helps to draw up a speech plan, teaches how to write summaries of literary sources, the correct design of abstracts and reports, and advises on all issues that arise in the process of independent work.
1. In accordance with the approved schedule of lectures and seminars, seminars may include a special form of education - a theoretical seminar, designed to increase the level of independent work of students in civil law.
This form of conducting classes can be used only on the condition that in the working plan the number of seminars on civil law is doubled, that is, instead of 34 hours - 60-62 hours each. Such an increase in the number of hours devoted to civil law is due to the increase in its role in the development of a market economy.
The basis for the introduction of this form of education is the idea of moving from the information-dogmatic method of training lawyers to their methodological training based on mastering the most important fundamental categories of civil law, developing skills for independent work with literature, law, analyzing the practical activities of legal bodies, and the ability to realistically assess specific life situations. which a lawyer has to deal with in practice.
2. Theoretical seminars can be different in nature, depending on the specific goals that the teacher sets at this stage of training. There are three main types of theoretical seminars.
A. Theoretical seminar - informative. It is designed for students to master the main fundamental categories of the topic being studied (“block”). This form of the seminar can be used at the very beginning of the study of the topic (“block”) as a way of initial acquaintance with the main categories that will have to be dealt with. In this case, it can be used various ways organization of such a seminar, in particular, the general task for all students to study the definition of a concept or construction (category); it is possible to assign one or more students to prepare a short report on a specific issue and its subsequent discussion; you can assign the task to a student or several students to study certain articles in journals covering some
B. Theoretical seminar - debate. This type of seminar is best held when the topic or a significant part of it has already been studied on a certain major discussion issue. It can be held in the form of a "round table", where everyone expresses their position, followed by summing up. In this case, along with the use of the preparation methods indicated in paragraph "A", you can use some elements of the "business game", in particular, divide students into groups, each of which must defend a certain position with the necessary evidence. It is also possible to single out a group of "experts" who should analyze the speeches and draw a conclusion about which position is better to take into account. The role of the teacher here is even greater, especially during the preparation of such a seminar, where it is necessary to determine the range of controversial issues, select literature accordingly, give certain tasks to students (groups of students), etc. At the end, the teacher should sum up, mainly evaluate the work done by students independent work in preparation for the dispute. Particular attention should be paid to the fact that during the discussion students refer not only to the literature they have read, but also to arbitration and judicial practice. It is necessary to pay attention to the correctness of the speakers, to instill in them the skills of intelligence in the discussion, respect for other points of view.
IN. Theoretical seminar - final. It can be carried out at the end of the study of the topic as a debriefing. The organization of such a seminar is possible in the form of a conference or in another form. The purpose of the workshop is to better identify students' knowledge and evaluate it. If, when summing up the results of the study of this “block”, the student showed good knowledge, then this assessment can be taken into account when conducting a course exam. It is necessary to aim students at this in advance, which will be some incentive for their independent work.
Choosing the type of theoretical seminar on a specific topic - teacher's business. It depends on the topic and the nature of the group. One should not think that all three types of theoretical seminar should be held on each topic. It is necessary to find the right
the right combination of a theoretical seminar with other forms of conducting seminars and practical classes.
3. When preparing for a theoretical seminar, the teacher should keep in mind that the main goal of theoretical seminars - improving the quality of independent work of students. This can be achieved not by giving a general and indefinite task to a group, but by giving, if possible, a precise and specific task to each student or group of students, the completion of which is easily checked. At the same time, it would be wrong to give assignments only to successful students. In this regard, the experience of conducting problematic seminars in a specialization group can help.
It seems that the active participation of students in the theoretical seminar will allow the teacher to orient the student to the term paper, and perhaps to the thesis. In other words, the leader of the seminar should look at the tasks given to students at the theoretical seminar, perspectively, taking into account the possibility of their use in course work.
It should be discussed whether an excellent report at a theoretical seminar can be credited for a term paper when the named report is presented in writing. At the same time, it is possible to evaluate coursework of this type in the terms of preparation and delivery of coursework previously established by the dean's office. Thus, the teacher can distribute his work on checking term papers for a longer period.
Study conference in content and organizational aspects, it is close to the seminar and is its development, as a result of which the methodology of the conference is similar to the methodology of the seminar. The conference, as a rule, is held with several study groups and is aimed at consolidating, expanding and improving special knowledge. Preparation for the conference begins with the definition of the topic, revealing its questions and speakers. Its main goal is the free discussion of topical issues and the search for adequate solutions. The requirements for the preparation of abstracts and reports for the conference are much higher than for seminars, since they are used as a means of shaping students' experience of creative activity and provide for an increase in difficulties in the content of assignments.
Consultation designed to help students in independent work, to eliminate gaps in their knowledge. At the consultations, the educational material is analyzed in detail, which is either poorly mastered by students, or not mastered at all. Consultations can be current and pre-examination, which set out the requirements for students in tests and exams, as well as individual and group. They create favorable conditions for an individual approach to students, orient the teacher to take into account their individual psychological characteristics, including the level of learning and educational prospects.
Training and production practice is integral part and one of the most complex forms of the educational process, both organizationally and methodologically, since for its implementation it is necessary to combine the interests of the real professional activity and an educational institution, adapt the learning process to the practical tasks of public authorities, law enforcement agencies, courts, specific organizations and enterprises.
Didactic goals of educational (introductory) and production (pre-diploma) practice - the formation and improvement of professional skills and abilities; consolidation, generalization and systematization of special knowledge through their application in practical legal activities in the performance of specific job duties.
Mastering the practical experience of professional activity is carried out as a result of a didactically expedient system of work of interns under the supervision of a teacher and a head of practice appointed by the institution. In pre-diploma practice, the student must demonstrate his readiness and ability for professional activities, the ability to independently apply the acquired special knowledge, and comply with the norms of professional ethics. Its main goal is to collect materials for the thesis. The student must submit a detailed report on its results along with a reference issued at the place of internship.
Legal clinic is a relatively new form of training and production practice, although even in pre-revolutionary Russia, law students combined their studies at a university with consul-
tason work (let us recall the experience of counseling the population by students of the law faculty of Kazan University in the middle of the 19th century under the guidance of Prof. D. I. Meyer). The goals of training in a legal clinic generally coincide with the goals of training and industrial practice and are as follows:
development of practical skills and abilities of professional legal activity;
theoretical and practical training of students to perform specific professional duties of a lawyer;
formation of professional ethics of a lawyer;
development of a humanistic attitude towards persons in need of legal protection, and towards people in general;
the ability to create the necessary psychological climate in dealing with clients;
learning to find creative solutions to various legal problems;
development of a sense of responsibility for one's work and other professionally significant qualities of a lawyer's personality.
Senior students are involved in the work of the legal clinic. Before starting work in the clinic, teachers and experienced practitioners conduct lectures and practical classes with students on human rights and law explanatory work with the population. Their goal is to develop practical skills, in particular: listen to the client, establish psychological contact with him and ask necessary questions; highlight legally significant facts, give legal qualifications and correct legal advice; select and analyze the norms of substantive and procedural law, comment on individual articles of laws, taking into account judicial practice; draw up procedural documents, statements of claim, objections to claims, etc.
A legal clinic, as a rule, works at a certain department or faculty in a specially equipped room with computers that have access to information and reference systems. The quality of consultations, drafted legal documents is checked by experienced teachers. Counseling faculty are on duty at the clinic to assist student counselors in complex cases.
The results of the practical work of students in a legal clinic are subjected to a comprehensive analysis in a group with the participation of a teacher in order to consolidate effective legally significant actions.
Independent work of students(hereinafter - SIW), along with the classroom, is the most important form of the educational process, since no knowledge, skills, abilities, not supported by independent activity, can become genuine elements of the professional competence of a specialist. Independent work is the planned work of students, performed independently on assignment and with the methodological guidance of a teacher in order to develop their cognitive abilities and focus on continuous self-education.
Due to the sharp increase in the volume of educational and scientific material with an insufficient number of classroom hours intended for its study, the SIW becomes extremely important in the framework of the educational process. The ratio of time allotted for classroom and independent work of students in most universities in the world is 1: 3.5. According to the modern educational paradigm, any university graduate must have fundamental knowledge, skills and abilities of professional activity, experience in creative and research activities, social, communicative and autopsychological competencies, which are also formed in the process of independent work of students.
Didactic tasks of the SIW: consolidating, deepening, expanding and systematizing the knowledge gained during the classroom; independent mastery of new educational material; development of professional skills, as well as skills and abilities of independent mental work; development of independent thinking, interest in legal literature, practical legal activities, law-making process.
The main forms of SIW: home study work; preparation of abstracts on individual topics; educational research and research work of students (educational research work of students - UIRS and research work of students - NIRS), involving participation in the work of scientific student circles and scientific student
conferences; preparation of term papers, theses and master's theses; organizing and conducting business games outside the classroom.
The development and implementation of methods for rationalizing and optimizing the SIW is one of the main tasks of the didactics of higher education. Studies show that students (especially junior students) do not always study successfully, not because they received poor training in secondary school, but because they do not have the willingness and ability to learn on their own, control and evaluate themselves, manage their own individual characteristics of cognitive activities, the ability to properly distribute their working time for self-training.
According to the results sociological research time budget, the student's working day, taking into account classroom studies, exceeds eight to nine hours. The majority of students (about 80%) spend from two to more than three hours a day on training in major subjects, the rest spend less than one hour on it. Approximately 50% of students spend up to one hour on training in non-core subjects, about 25% of students - up to two hours. The system of education at the university differs sharply from the school one, since it is designed for a high level of consciousness, professional interests and inclinations of students. It formally lacks a rigid system of daily school checks, "fear" of the teacher, the need to "learn lessons" daily. Some students, having passed the entrance competitive exams, then turn out to be unprepared for responsible independent study. Only 10% of students usually prepare for exams throughout the semester and only look at the material during the session, about 50, as a rule, re-study the material of the entire course using a textbook and notes, and about 40% of students only using notes.
The main difficulties in adapting freshmen to university life are negative experiences associated with leaving the school team with its mutual help and moral support; uncertainty or insufficient motivation for choosing a profession; inability to carry out psychological self-regulation of behavior and educational activities, aggravated by the lack of the habit of daily control of teachers; search for the optimal mode of work and rest in new conditions;
improvement of everyday life and self-service, especially when moving from home to a hostel; lack of independent work skills, inability to take notes, work with primary sources, dictionaries, reference books, regulations, indexes.
To develop effective tactics and strategies that ensure optimal adaptation of students to university life, teachers and administration need to know the interests and life plans of a freshman, the system of his dominant motives, the level of claims, self-esteem, ability and readiness for conscious regulation of behavior and independent learning activities. The task of the student group is to create conditions for optimal learning activities for both yesterday's schoolchildren and those who came from the industrial sector.
The most important activities that contribute to the adaptation of first-year students to university conditions include: work on the rational formation of student groups; ritual "Initiation into students", reading courses "Introduction to the specialty", "Fundamentals of educational activity"; presentations of leading teachers in groups; acquaintance with the history of the university, its traditions, famous graduates; organization of consultation points in dormitories by teachers and students; the introduction of intersessional certification, which allows you to control the independent work of students during the semester, to provide them with the necessary assistance in time. Information about the results of independent work of students, received by the dean's offices, is used to help lagging behind students, to encourage successful students and to blame negligent ones. Students who regularly work and perform well during the semester can automatically receive credits, well-deserved excellent marks in exams, and the right to transfer to an individual study schedule.
home study work includes independent preparation for practical and seminar classes, as well as any independent educational activity that is part of the educational process. Its special functions are to develop the ability to study independently, determine the methods and means of work, and plan teaching. Its main purpose is to consolidate the knowledge and skills acquired at
classroom lessons, skills development, learning new material.
Didactic conditions that ensure the successful implementation of independent work: a clear formulation of tasks and recommendations for implementation; motivation of the educational task (for what, what it contributes to); appropriate dosing of the amount of homework; determination by the teacher of reporting forms, the timing of its submission; definition of types of consulting assistance; evaluation criteria, types and forms of control.
The content of students' independent study work is: reading and note-taking of sources recommended by the teacher, followed by discussion of specific issues in practical classes and seminars; solving problems in certain sections and topics of the course, followed by discussion in practical classes; drafting short reviews the most characteristic court cases followed by discussion at a seminar or meeting of a scientific student circle; visiting, on the instructions of a teacher, court hearings, legal departments of various organizations, notary offices to familiarize students with their work and subsequent analysis in practical classes and seminars; preparation of comments on bills as homework, followed by discussion in the classroom; drafting legal documents taking into account the topics studied, followed by their analysis in a practical lesson.
Preparation of abstracts- one of the forms of organization and control of the SRS. An abstract (from Latin referre - to report, inform) is a summary of the content of a source with a concise assessment or disclosure of the state of a problem based on an overview comparison and analysis of several sources. Depending on the content and purpose in the educational process, abstracts are divided into scientific-problem and review-information.
The purpose of writing essays is to develop the skills of independent work of students with literary and legislative sources, published judicial and arbitration practice. Based on their analysis and generalization, students can draw conclusions of a theoretical and practical nature with their own justification. Topics of essays, lists of recommended literature are determined by teachers. Abstracts from
a summary of the main content of a book or articles on a particular issue can be considered as the initial stage in the preparation of a term paper on the relevant topic. The volume of the abstract should be within 15-20 pages of typewritten text. The usual structure of the abstract: plan; introduction with substantiation of the topic and tasks; the main body of several paragraphs; conclusion, which contains conclusions; bibliographic list.
Course work as an independent creative scientific essay of a student, it is intended to give an idea of the acquired special knowledge and skills applied in solving a specific legal problem. When writing a term paper, students develop and develop the ability to work with literature, make extracts, make notes, analyze legal sources and law enforcement practice, to draw reasonable conclusions.
The preparation of term papers is organized by the department in stages. At the organizational stage, students choose the topic of the course work on the basis of the approximate list of topics approved by the department in the relevant academic discipline, set out the requirements for the course work, draw up a schedule that outlines the stages of work and days of consultations. The student agrees on the work plan, the list of references, the term and procedure for preparing the course work with the appointed supervisor. Course work has the following structure: plan; a brief introduction, which substantiates the relevance of the topic and formulates the tasks; main part; list of used normative acts, materials of practice and literature. The approximate volume of the course work is 30-40 pages of typewritten text.
Criteria for evaluating the course work: the adequacy of the content of the chosen topic and the degree of its disclosure; comprehensiveness scientific literature; use of regulations, legal practice; creative approach to solving the problem posed in the course work; scientific correctness and argumentation of the conclusions, their compliance with the tasks formulated in the introduction; linguistic correctness and accuracy of coursework. When evaluating a term paper, not only its content is taken into account, but also the results of oral defense.
According to the decision of the department on the basis of the presentation of the supervisor for the course work, the following can be credited: a report at a meeting of a scientific student circle or at a scientific student conference; scientific report on industrial practice; translation by a student from a foreign language into Russian of a foreign scientific source or normative act necessary in the educational or scientific work of the department, provided with a brief commentary.
Graduate work- this is a complex independent creative work, in the course of which students solve specific professional tasks that correspond to the profile of the specialty and the level of education. It must be a combination theoretical disclosure issues of the topic with the analysis of legal documents and legal practice.
Didactic goals of writing a thesis: expansion, consolidation and systematization of special knowledge, skills and abilities and their application in solving scientific and practical problems of a legal nature; development of skills and abilities of independent scientific work, including mastering the methods of scientific and applied research of legal problems; checking and determining the level of preparedness of university graduates for independent practical work in relevant organizations and institutions or for further postgraduate study.
The department draws up an approximate list of themes of theses, which should be relevant, take into account the needs of legal science and practice. When choosing a topic for a thesis, a student can be based on the materials of his abstracts, reports, term papers for previous years of study. One should welcome the student's enthusiasm for the study of any topical legal problem throughout all the years of his studies at the university. He can offer his topic with the rationale for its expediency, relevance and possibility of disclosure.
After the topic is approved, the student agrees with the supervisor on the plan, procedure and program of undergraduate practice. The duties of the supervisor include: assessment and discussion of the draft work plan of the thesis proposed by the student; verification and discussion of the list of selected scientific literature, legal acts and other sources; con-
advising the student on various issues related to the performance of work and the difficulties that have arisen; drawing up a program of undergraduate practice.
In the process of preparing a thesis, a student comprehensively studies a certain legal problem, its theoretical and practical aspects; analyzes scientific literature and regulatory material; summarizes and analyzes legal practice; develops its own position on the relevant problem, attitude to existing points of view, legal practice; formulates, if possible, its proposals for the improvement of legal practice and legislation. Thesis structure: title page; table of contents; introduction, which discusses the relevance of the chosen topic and research problem, the reasons for choosing it by the student, the degree of development, goals and objectives of the work; main text divided into chapters and paragraphs; conclusion, which summarizes the results of the study, outlines the conclusions and proposals of the author; bibliography, including scientific sources, regulations, materials of legal practice; application (if any). The volume of final qualifying work - 50-60 pages of typewritten text.
In the review of the supervisor and the review, the advantages and disadvantages of the thesis are noted, a general conclusion is made about its level, and a specific assessment can be offered. The procedure for defending a thesis includes: a short report by the student on the main provisions of the work, his conclusions and suggestions; questions from members of the SAC, others present to the student and his answers to questions; speeches of the reviewer or hearing his review; speeches by other persons wishing to speak on the merits of the issue; final word student with his answers to questions and comments made in the review, review and discussion of the work.
Criteria for evaluating the thesis: creative nature, the use of scientific literature, current regulations, materials of undergraduate practice; logical and clear presentation of the material presented, evidence and reliability of facts and conclusions; the student's ability to use rational methods of searching, selecting, processing and systematizing information, the ability to work with normative
legal acts; the correctness and accuracy of the design of the thesis; the degree of professional preparedness, manifested both in the content of the thesis and in the process of its defense.
The activation of the IWS involves the use of various techniques and methods in the practice of teaching, which can be grouped as follows.
1. Teaching students the methods of independent work (development of time budget planning skills, communication of the necessary knowledge for introspection and self-assessment of their educational activities, development of skills for searching, selecting, systematizing and rational assimilation of the necessary information using various sources and databases).
Convincing demonstration by teachers of the need to master the proposed educational material for the upcoming educational and professional activities in lectures and other forms of the educational process, in teaching aids and guidelines.
Organization individual plans training involving students in research and practical professional activities (through agreements with enterprises and organizations, student scientific society - SSS, legal clinics, etc.).
A problematic presentation of educational material that reproduces typical ways of real reasoning and finding solutions to professional problems used in legal science and practice.
Application of active teaching methods.
Development and familiarization of students with the structural-logical scheme of the academic discipline and its elements.
Development of guidelines for junior students containing a detailed algorithm of educational activities, in which the explanatory part is gradually reduced from course to course in order to accustom students to greater independence.
Development of comprehensive teaching aids for independent work of students, combining theoretical material, guidelines and tasks for solving.
Development of teaching aids of an interdisciplinary nature.
Individualization of homework assignments, differentiation of assignments and types of educational activities in the organization of SIW
Assigning the status of "student consultant" to the most capable and well-performing students, attaching them to the lagging behind in order to assist in their studies.
Development and implementation of collective methods of teaching group and pair work.
Reading by students of a fragment of a lecture in its preliminary preparation with the help of a teacher.
Control questions to the lecture flow after each lecture in order to check its effectiveness.
The use of computer programs for self-study and self-control of students, the development of distance learning.
Organization of constant (rating) control of students' educational activities, which will minimize traditional control activities and increase the time budget of the IWS at the expense of session time. One of the forms of such constant control according to the Bologna Declaration can be a system of accumulation of credit units, when for each lecture, seminar, etc. credit points are put, and only by gaining the required number of them, the student can receive a diploma of higher education.
Forms and methods of pedagogical control are an integral part of the learning process. Let's consider them in more detail.
Colloquium(from lat. colloquium - conversation, conversation) - one of the forms of training sessions, which, like the forms of SIW described above, performs a control and training function. A colloquium is used as a form of final control after studying a subject for one, two, three semesters and is a conversation between a teacher and students in order to determine the level of acquired knowledge. In addition to diagnosing the assimilation of knowledge, the colloquium also performs an organizing function, activates the independent work of students and is recommended as one of the most effective forms of feedback in the educational process.
Pedagogical control has three interrelated functions: diagnostic, teaching and educational.
Diagnostic function is to identify the level of knowledge, skills, in determining the level of formed
ness of professionally significant qualities, in the assessment of educational activities and behavior of students.
Teaching function control is manifested in the activation of students' learning activities.
educational function is that the system of pedagogical control disciplines, organizes and directs the educational activities of students, helps to identify and eliminate gaps in knowledge, promotes the development of a creative attitude to learning and autodidactic competence.
Pedagogical control is divided into current, thematic, milestone, final, final.
current control helps to differentiate students into successful and unsuccessful ones, motivates their educational activities (survey at practical classes and seminars, tests, homework, self-control data check).
Thematic control serves to determine the level of assimilation of a particular topic or section of the course.
Frontier control is a check of students' educational achievements before starting to study the next part of the educational material, the assimilation of which is impossible without the assimilation of the previous part.
Final control in the form of a final test or exam, it is designed to reveal the results of studying a particular discipline and the students' opportunities for further study.
Final control is carried out in the form of state examinations and defense of the thesis.
Each of the forms of pedagogical control (practical classes, seminars, colloquia, written tests, abstracts, reports, term papers and theses, tests, exams, testing) has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. If oral-speech forms of control contribute to the development of a culture of speech, interpersonal communication skills, then written work allows you to document the level of assimilation of educational material, but requires a lot of time from the teacher.
Conducting practical classes in the form of disputes, discussions, business games, colloquia, preparation of abstracts, reports, term papers and theses contribute to the development of a creative professionally competent personality of a specialist. Tests and exams create an additional burden on the student's psyche. Testing eliminates the subjectivity of pre-
submitters, increases the objectivity of assessing the knowledge and skills of students, provided that the test tasks meet the requirements of reliability and validity.
Testing It is used in the educational process mainly to check the volume and quality of acquired knowledge.
Test (from the English test - test, test) - a system of tasks of increasing difficulty of a specific form, tested on the basis of scientific criteria, for an objective assessment of the level and structure of students' knowledge or for pedagogical measurement of the level of formation of certain personality traits. Tests are used in the process of career guidance and professional selection (for example, to establish the adequacy of the choice of profession by applicants), in the certification and accreditation of universities, to identify the structure and completeness of students' knowledge and evaluate the performance of individual teachers or the department as a whole.
Depending on the various criteria, the following types of tests are distinguished.
According to the purpose of application- tests: determination of abilities; diagnostic; academic performance; general skills; "accommodation" of students in the acquisition of study groups, etc.
By the nature of the implementation of pedagogical control- tests: current and intermediate progress control; final control of progress.
By object of control- tests: professional-subject competence, measuring the level and volume of assimilation of educational material in the subject; pragmatic, measuring the level of formation of professional practical skills.
According to the direction of test tasks- tests: discrete (one section or subject); integrated; global (to check the amount of knowledge).
According to the form of test tasks- tests: closed form with the choice of one (correct) answer from several given; open form, where the subjects need to complete, complete the sentence, give their own definition (for example: "Democracy is...").
The development of test tasks includes several stages: selection of the content and form of tasks; creation of instructions and description of the test; test approbation; processing of empirical
data; interpretation of processing results; examination of test quality.
The choice of the form of a test task depends on the purpose of creating and applying the test, the content of the training course, the qualifications and experience of the developer. The following requirements are imposed on the content of the test task: subject purity, scientific correctness and reliability, significance and representativeness (highlight basic knowledge and most fully present the training course).
The following requirements are imposed on the test of the closed form: standard instruction; complete clarity and utmost brevity of the text; simple stylistic design; having only one correct answer; approximately the same length of all answers; no contradictions between the main part and the answers.
The more fully the content of the course is displayed in the test tasks, the higher the validity of the test. The objectivity of a test is derived from a combination of its validity and reliability.
Validity- this is the suitability of the test for a qualitative measurement of what it was created for, that is, the conformity of the test in form and content with its purpose. Validity is assessed based on test results, exam results and professional activities, which should have a high level of correlation.
Another important characteristic of the test is reliability- the stability of the test results obtained with its repeated use. Reliability is assessed by the results of parallel testing in two groups, repeated testing, splitting the test into two parts to establish a correlation between them.
Computer testing contributes to the intensification of the educational process and improvement of its quality due to the thoughtful selection of content, its rational dosage, the logical continuity of educational information, the economical and optimal use of educational time, the individualization of education, the use of modern technical teaching aids. Advantages of computer testing: practical implementation in the educational process of a multi-level system of pedagogical control; individualized control at any size of the student group; objectivity and flexibility of assessments; individualization of pace and
the level of assimilation of educational material; the possibility of forming a database on the course of training; automatic statistical processing of test results, which allows teachers to make timely and adequate decisions on the management of the educational process; activation of independent work of students, development of self-regulation and self-government of educational activities.
Tests and exams are traditional forms of pedagogical control, the purpose of which is to test and evaluate the knowledge and skills of students. During tests and exams, many students experience great neuro-psychological overload, therefore, an essential element of the methodology for conducting them is the creation of a favorable atmosphere by the teacher. The teacher under all circumstances must show goodwill, restraint, objectivity, patience, avoid sharply negative assessments of students' statements, ridicule, offensive characteristics of their knowledge, far-fetched nit-picking.
Checking the level of knowledge of the student, along with checking what he remembered, should also include checking the strength and consistency of his knowledge, the ability to independently and competently analyze legal material, freely operate with legal concepts and categories.
When conducting tests and exams, it is advisable for the teacher to observe the following methodological recommendations:
the teacher invites the first four or five students, each of them offers to take a ticket and indicates a place for preparation; after the answer of one student and the receipt of an assessment, the next one is invited;
when preparing answers to the questions of the ticket, students can draw up a plan and write down individual formulations, but it is not recommended to write down and read out the continuous text of the answer;
a detailed meaningful answer should be prepared within the boundaries of the exact formulation of the question, starting with the scientific definition and disclosure of the corresponding concept;
if instead of a direct answer to the question, the student starts the story from afar, then the examiner stops him and offers to answer exactly the question;
small additional questions that are not related to the main ones allow the teacher to determine how the student is oriented in the educational material, how firmly he
voil basic concepts, how he can formulate his thoughts without preliminary deliberation; the answers to these questions are also taken into account when setting the examination grade;
Despite the fact that the student's knowledge is assessed on the basis of the teacher's subjective perception of his answers, all examiners should be guided by the same assessment criteria and requirements developed at the department and known to students;
during the exam, students have the right to use the curriculum for the subject, which they receive along with the list of questions for the exam at the very beginning of studying this subject, which is especially important when conducting an exam without tickets;
if some examiner from year to year approximately 75% of students receive only excellent or only unsatisfactory marks, it is advisable to conduct a written test (written exam) or an oral exam with the participation of the department inspector in his groups.
Grade as a result and a way to confirm the conformity or inconsistency of the acquired knowledge, skills and abilities of the student with the goals and objectives of learning, it contributes to the organization of educational activities, identifying the causes of underachievement, and determining specific learning objectives for each student. A mark is a digital or verbal equivalent of an assessment.
When assessing the knowledge and skills of students, one should proceed from the following recommendations.
"Excellent" is given to those students who have demonstrated the required amount of knowledge of the basic theoretical concepts and categories, familiarity with special literature, normative material, independent thinking, practical skills, and a high level of speech culture.
"Good" is given for a sufficiently deep and solid knowledge of the subject, the ability to correctly present the material, referring to the law, with minor inaccuracies, omissions, errors.
"Satisfactory" deserves students who know the material in the volume of the textbook and are familiar with the main regulations, while revealing noticeable gaps and inaccuracies (which is not an obstacle to further learning).
"Unsatisfactory" is put for ignorance of the subject, a large number of errors, the student's refusal to answer the questions of the ticket.
The student's request to the examiner to replace the ticket should not be satisfied, since it indicates the student's ignorance of the subject in the required volume.
