DIY Roman armor. Equipment of ancient warriors: legionnaire of the era of Trajan
Trajan, who ruled Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called “five good emperors.” The emperor's contemporaries would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan “the best ruler” (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words upon their accession to “be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan” (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached the largest size in its entire history.
The equipment of Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army harmoniously combined with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of the Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the interactive special project Warspot.
Helmet
At the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic model of a helmet that had previously been used in Gaul, began to produce combat headbands with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from attacks from above. chopping blows, and large cheekpieces equipped with chased decorations. The front dome of the helmet was decorated with embossed decorations in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Legion of Larks (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.
Another characteristic feature of this type of helmet was the cutouts for the ears, covered with bronze plates on top. Bronze decorations and plates are also characteristic, looking very effective against the background of the light surface of the polished iron of the helmet. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series became the predominant model of combat headgear in the Roman army by the end of the 1st century. Based on his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature, which apparently appeared during Trajan's Dacian Wars, was an iron crosspiece, which was used to strengthen the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible Dacian scythes.
Plate armor
The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliary infantry and cavalry wear chain mail or scale armor. But such a division is probably not true. Contemporary to the Column reliefs, depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissia show legionnaires wearing chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in border forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that soldiers in these units wore lorica.
The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st–3rd centuries. Its Roman name, if there was one, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations at Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of the battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Its appearance and spread therefore date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not to an earlier time. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators, the Crupellars, while others see it as an eastern development, better suited to holding the arrows of Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was widespread in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some special units. The extent of the distribution of finds of individual pieces of armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no talk of uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of reliefs of Trajan’s Column.
In the absence of real finds about the structure of plate armor, many different hypotheses were put forward. Finally, in 1964, during excavations at a border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved examples of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the Lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted from the inside onto a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of one another and formed an extremely flexible metal covering for the body. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. Using straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. Flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate on top. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands through the side openings and fasten it on the chest, like a vest.
Lamellar armor was durable, flexible, lightweight and at the same time a very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.
Bracers
In the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of Eastern origin and consists of a vertical row of plates riveted from the inside onto a belt the full length of the arm. This type of protective equipment was rarely used in the Roman army, but judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian scythes, he ordered the hands of his soldiers to be protected with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.
Sword
In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and a rather short point became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportions of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting down an enemy who was not wearing protective armor. Its shape already very vaguely resembled the original gladius, characteristic feature which had a long and thin tip. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, the enemies of which were now the barbarians - the Germans and Dacians.
Legionnaires carried a sword in a sheath of a frame design. On the front side they were decorated with bronze slotted plates with geometric patterns and figurative images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt of the sword belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was hung. The lower end of the belt passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. This fastening ensured reliable fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly grab the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.
Dagger
On the left side, on the waist belt, Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated tip. The length of the blade could reach 30–35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a sheath of a frame design. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass, or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was suspended from the belt using a pair of straps passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upward, and the weapon was always ready for combat use.
Pilum
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionnaires wear a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by archaeological finds, its design has not changed from earlier times.
Some soldiers who were distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the pilum shaft with spherical lead attachments, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow it inflicted. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but have not yet been found among real archaeological finds.
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Shield
At the end of the 1st century BC, the upper and lower edges of the oval shield, known from images of the Republic era, were straightened, and by the middle of the century the side edges also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of earlier times, also continued to be used.
The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the warriors’ figures, were 1×0.5 m. These figures correspond well to archaeological finds of later times. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks, glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbos, was about 6 mm.
The outside of the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. Subjects depicted included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, and the coat of arms of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were lined with bronze clips so that the wood would not be chipped by blows from enemy swords. The shield was held in the hand by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the shield field, a semicircular cutout was made, into which the hand holding the handle was inserted. From the outside, the cutout was covered with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.
Tunic
The soldier's tunic has not changed much from previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric approximately 1.5 x 1.3 m, sewn at the sides and at the neck. The cutout for the head and neck remained wide enough so that during field work for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could pull down one of its sleeves, completely exposing their right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered into folds and secured with a belt. A highly belted tunic that exposed the knees was considered a sign of the military.
In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, with the lower one made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions wore bright white tunics. To decorate the tunics, two stripes of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.
Trousers
The Romans, like the Greeks, considered pants an attribute of barbarism. During the cold season, they wore woolen wrappings on their legs. Short trousers to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who served en masse in the Roman army since the times of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by infantrymen of the auxiliary troops, who were also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.
The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear pants, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for long periods of time are depicted wearing tight and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for this clothing spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short pants are already worn by all categories of troops.
Tie
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by the armor. Another purpose of the tie is made clear by its later name “sudarion”, which comes from the Latin sudor - “sweat”.
Penula
In inclement weather or during the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. One of the most common cloak models was the penula. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer finish. The shape of the penule resembled half an oval, the straight sides of which met at the front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.
In some sculptures there is no cut. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect from bad weather, it was equipped with a deep hood. In a civilian lazern, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed soldiers to freely use their hands without taking off their cloak. In frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.
Kaligi
The soldiers' footwear were heavy Kaliga boots. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick cowhide. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps that covered the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided the feet with good ventilation.
The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched together. For greater strength, it was reinforced from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, and the weight of a pair of nails reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were arranged in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that were more worn out during the hike.
According to the observations of modern reenactors, the nailed shoes wore well on dirt roads and in the fields, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slipped on the stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for approximately 500–1000 km of march, while 10 percent of the nails had to be changed every 100 km of the route. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.
Belt
The belt was an important part of Roman men's clothing. Boys wore a belt as a sign of reaching adulthood. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved plates. For a decorative effect, the overlays were sometimes coated with silver and equipped with enamel inserts.
Roman belts from the end of the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century AD had a kind of apron made of 4–8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal decorations. Apparently, this detail served a purely decorative function and was worn for the sound effect it created. A dagger and sometimes a wallet with small money were hung from the belt. The Romans, as a rule, wore a sword on a shoulder belt.
Leggings
Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on monuments of the 1st and 2nd centuries were often depicted wearing greaves, the wearing of which was something of a symbol of their rank. Their leggings were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral patterns. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.
During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from blows from Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamklisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in sculptures and frescoes of later times. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffening rib, devoid of any decoration. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.
Judging by the fact that the armor of the officer depicted on the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (second half of the 1st century BC) is similar to that which appears on Trajan’s Column (beginning of the 2nd century AD), the “fashion” for armor of the late Hellenistic type was preserved in the Roman army throughout the first two centuries of our era. It can be assumed that the officers wore a short “muscular” cuirass, imitating the relief of the male “ideal” muscles (sometimes such armor is called “anatomical”), leggings (osgeae) and a helmet, also of the late Hellenistic type.
The officer's armament consisted of a sword, a spear and a round shield. Tribunus laticlavius wore a wide white scarf over his cuirass, tied under the chest, indicating that the tribune was considered a candidate for senator. The other five tribunes of the legion wore a narrower scarf purple.
Higher commanders wore a sword on a belt belt. Since they did not have to use a shield, they could carry a sword on the left. But there is no exact data about this, since emperors and high dignitaries in the images are shown without swords. They had swords, of course, but they played a symbolic role, like the swords of European military leaders of the 17th–19th centuries.
The centurions were distinguished by their silver-plated scaly armor and the fact that they often wore leggings that had fallen out of common use. The comb on the helmet of the centurions was attached transversely. The insignia of centurions and at the same time an instrument of punishment was a vine - a cane (vitis). One of the ancient authors mentions that for his addiction to the use of this attribute, one of the centurions of the German legions was nicknamed “Give another”, since the vine often could not withstand contact with the backs of his charges. The centurions carried the sword on the left, the dagger on the right.
Legionnaires
Before Maria's reform, legionnaires were divided into categories differing in age and weapons. First two lines order of battle The legion consisted of principles and hastati, young warriors armed with pilums, the third line - of triarii, veterans armed with simple spears. After the reform, all legionnaires were armed in the same way.
At the beginning of the 1st century. The first state workshops, producing weapons and armor for the army, arose in different parts of the empire. Of course, there was no strict uniformity in the products they produced. By the beginning of the 1st century. On the territory of the Roman state, several types of weapons and armor were produced, which had become traditional by this time.
The legionnaire's defensive equipment (arma) consisted of a helmet, armor and shield. At first new era Gallic workshops began to produce two new types of helmets with a noticeable local influence of Gallic traditions in the manufacture of helmets. The first type (coolus) included round bronze helmets with a small rear visor, the second - iron helmets with a large rear visor (“Port” - after the name of the place in Switzerland where one of them was found), subsequently modified into the classic “imperial-Gallic” " type. Old bronze type helmets
“Montefortino” from the time of Julius Caesar was still used quite widely at the beginning of the new millennium, along with new models. As for “coolus” type helmets, they ceased to be used in the middle of the 1st century.
Modification of a Roman helmet in the first half of the 1st century. characterized by a gradual increase in the rear visor. During the same period, a horizontal stiffening rib appeared, attached to the supra-frontal part of the helmet (like a modern visor), protecting the face from the downward blow of a sword. By the second quarter of the 1st century. Inflatable semicircular protrusions appear on the helmets. All these details remained a characteristic feature of Roman infantry helmets in the 2nd century.
To attach the comb to the helmets, two holes were provided in which special holders were fixed. The crests were most likely worn only for parades and were rarely used in battle. The helmet itself was worn only before battle, but during the campaign it was hung on leather straps on the warrior’s chest.
The carapace (lorica) takes its name from the leather thongs (lorum) of which it was once composed. Roman soldiers used several types of this shell.
Lorica squamata (scale shell) was a canvas or leather shirt covered with rows of metal scales.
Until the middle of the 1st century, judging by the images on tombstones, legionnaires continued to wear lorica hamata (or hamis serta) - chain mail that weighed approximately 12–15 kg. In the eastern provinces of the empire, their use was perhaps longer than in the western ones, where shells were made in Gallic workshops, in the 30s and 40s. I century switched to the production of a completely new type of plate armor, lorica segmentate, consisting of metal strips fastened from the inside with leather straps. A modified lorica segmentata with simplified details was used by Roman soldiers until the 3rd century. and later. It is worth noting that the trend of simplifying details, not only the shell, but also other elements of military equipment, did not stop throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
Since time immemorial, the legionary's shield has been an oval, curved scutum. Its origin is not entirely known; some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st century. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.
The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, the edges were upholstered with copper or iron, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex plate - umbo. In the recess of this lining with inside On the shield, a warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the shield could be decorated with embossing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted the personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there were records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, legion number, maybe century, etc. The weight of the shield was no less than 5.5 kg.
Group of Roman commanders and warriors (fragment of a bas-relief of Trajan's Column)
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Zodiac signs could be found among the images. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous image is lightning and spindles
Jupiter - most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.
During the campaign and in the camp, to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, they used leather covers that were removed before the battle. Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future Emperor Titus staged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to soldiers: “According to the custom accepted in such cases, the army marched out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers, and in full armor. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright shine of gold and silver.” The ceremony lasted four whole days and made quite a strong impression on the besieged.
It must be said that the shield was used not only as cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. When training soldiers, they practiced direct strikes with the central convex pad of the shield, designed to throw the enemy off balance, as well as strikes with the edge of the shield.
Offensive infantry weapons included swords, pilums, and javelins.
The Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) originates from the Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis), which is slightly longer than the Roman one. After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received these excellent weapons.
The gladius sword, the name of which in our time has passed on to the gladiolus flower, similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade decreased to 44–55 cm.
At the beginning of the 1st century. Legionnaires wore a belt (balteus) over their left shoulder, on which the scabbard (vagina) of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could grab it without changing the position of the shield, which should always cover it as completely as possible.
In addition to the sword, the legionary had a combat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt (cingulum) on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's Column, by the end of the 1st century. The dagger was most likely no longer used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.
From about the 4th century. BC e. The legionnaires' throwing weapons were pilums, a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s I century n. e. Only heavy pilums began to be used.
The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was quite strong: it could pierce the enemy’s shield. Therefore, the legionnaires’ tactics were based on throwing pilums at the enemy’s shields. The heavy tip got stuck, became bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), and the shaft pulled the enemy’s shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with pilums stuck into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.
Auxiliary Infantry
During the imperial period, the weapons and armor of the auxiliary infantry became monotonous, and judging by the bas-relief on Trajan's Column, already at the beginning of the 2nd century. they are not much different from legionnaires.
Infantrymen wore chain mail or linen-based scale armor and a helmet reminiscent of a legionnaire's helmet, but more simplified. Chainmail and scaly armor eventually gave way to plate armor - loriki.
The main external difference between the “oxylarii” and the legionnaires was a flat oval or hexagonal shield, similar to that, which was used by the Germanic tribes, although some cohorts had legionary shields (scutums). The “oxylarii” were armed with two spears (lancea) and a sword (gladius). They could also use a heavy spear (gaesum).
Traditional throwing weapons: sling, bow, dart - were the weapons of foreign warriors who served Rome.
The slingers (funditores), usually recruited on the Balearic Islands, had a prasha (funda) as a weapon - a double folded belt. Stones (lapides missiles) or lead bullets (glandes) cast in the shape of an acorn were used for throwing. On Trajan's Column these warriors are shown without any armor at all and even without any shoes.
Archers (sagittarii) were usually recruited from the eastern provinces. They wore chain mail that was longer than that worn by cavalry or infantrymen, and were armed with a compound bow (arcus) with 12–24 arrows (sagitta).
Cavalry
The Roman cavalryman was protected by chain mail or scale armor and wore an iron or bronze helmet. The helmet resembled a legionnaire's helmet in almost every detail. Shoulders of cavalry chain mail in the 1st century. very reminiscent of Celtic shoulder pads. The chain mail had slits on the hips so as not to restrict the movements of the rider when he mounted his horse. Another, lighter type of mail, depicted on Trajan's Column, has scalloped edges on the sleeves and hem. Defensive equipment was complemented by a flat oval or hexagonal shield. On a hike, the shield was either attached to the saddle or thrown over the back. Of course, there were variations in equipment, sometimes very significant, especially with regard to helmets and their decorations.
The cavalrymen were armed with a longer sword (spatha) than the infantry, similar to the Celtic swords (glaives celtiques), as well as a long (tragula, hasta) or light throwing (lancea) spear. The long blade of the sword was necessary for striking from a horse. Before the advent of cataphracts, Roman cavalrymen did not use spears as a striking weapon. This is quite understandable, since without stirrups, and their Ancient world I didn’t know, a blow from a spear could simply throw the rider himself out of the saddle. But they wore spurs (calcaria), which were attached to “kaligs” (shoes) with leather straps.
Josephus, who describes the eastern mercenary cavalrymen of Vespasian, mentions quivers with 3-4 darts attached to the saddle.
Cavalry armor underwent an evolution opposite to that of the infantryman's armor. If the legionnaire's equipment continued to be simplified and made lighter, the cavalry's equipment became stronger and heavier until the cavalrymen turned into clibanarii, heavily armed mounted warriors.
At the beginning of the empire, horse armor was not used, but the harness was decorated with bronze pendants and discs (phalerae), also of Celtic origin.
The infantry of the mixed cohorts had the same equipment as the soldiers of the infantry cohorts, but all its details were simplified to the extreme, which indicated the lower position of this infantry in the military hierarchy.
Clothes and shoes
The legionnaire's clothing consisted of a woolen shirt (tunica) with short sleeves or without them, over which armor was worn. They tied a scarf around their neck to prevent it from being rubbed by the plates of the shell. The soldiers of the auxiliary troops also had the same headscarf, even if they wore chain mail as armor. The color of the tunic is most often depicted in books and historical films as red (the color of Mars), but due to the high cost of this dye, this color of clothing could only be afforded by the praetorian cohorts.
Distinctive feature musicians and standard bearers was that they usually wore an animal skin draped over their shoulders over their helmets. According to tradition, lion skins were used in the eastern legions and praetorian cohorts, and bear skins were used in the Germanic ones.
Roman soldiers wore a cloak (sagum), which was removed before battle. At a later time, a paenula, a long cloak with a hood, was worn to protect against cold and rain. The commander's military cloak (paludamentum), made of the best material, was purple with gold embroidery.
The footwear for ordinary soldiers and centurions was (since Republican times) low ankle boots (caligae) laced with straps, leaving the toes free.
Pants (bgassae) were borrowed from the Gauls. They were worn in the northern regions. In general, to protect against the cold, bandages (fasciae) were wrapped around the legs.
1. Bulgarian slinger.
2. "Barbarian" in Roman service.
3. Legionnaire in a chain mail armor lorica hamata (1st half of the 1st century) and a bronze helmet of the “coolus” type.
1. Lamellar legionnaire lorica segmentata (about 100 g).
2. Legionnaire on the march. In the left hand there is a pole for carrying luggage, in the right there are throwing spears - pilums. The shield is protected by a leather case.
3. Legionnaire (about 200).
All three legionnaires were wearing various modifications of iron helmets of the “imperial-Gallic” type, the characteristic details of which were wide cheek plates and a rear visor.
1. Sarmatian mercenary of the auxiliary cavalry (II century). Judging by the image on Trajan's Column, the horses of noble warriors could have been protected by scale armor.
2. Rider of the legionary cavalry (2nd half of the 1st century).
3. Signifer (signifer) of the auxiliary cavalry ala (2nd half of the 1st century).
1. Middle Eastern foot archer (based on the image on Trajan's Column).
2. Infantryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).
3. Cavalryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).
Warriors of mixed cohorts wore “cavalry” helmets with characteristic stiffeners crossing at the top of the head. The helmets of the auxiliary cohorts and al were made of bronze, but could be iron, and did not have decorations, unlike the helmets of the legionary cavalry.
1. Signifer (signifer) with the sign of the maniple.
2. Eagle Bearer of the Legion.
3. Praetorian with a standard (vexilum) in ceremonial vestments.
1. Soldier of auxiliary foot cohorts (2nd half of the 1st century - 2nd century),
2. Soldier of the Spanish auxiliary cohort - cohors Hispanorum scutata (about 100).
3. Helvetian auxiliary infantry in winter clothing, armed with a heavy throwing spear (gaesum). Beginning of the 3rd century
1. Optio praetorian cohort in combat ceremonial outfit. The comb on the helmet was secured with special holders that could easily be detached when the ridge was removed. In the left hand is a ceremonial staff.
2. Warlord V rank tribunus laticlavius. The insignia is a white scarf with gold tassels.
3. Centurion(2nd half i century).
1. Standard bearer (vexilarium) of the praetorian cavalry.
2. A soldier of the praetorian cohort in ceremonial clothing.
3. Musician (cornicin) of the praetorian cohort. Unlike soldiers who wore plate armor (lorica segmentata), musicians wore chain mail.
Notes:
The name clibanarii comes from the word clibanus - a small iron stove.
The Roman soldiers of Septimius Severus looked little different from the soldiers of Augustus who lived two centuries earlier.
In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire experienced a period of political, military and financial turmoil. During the fifty years that elapsed between the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 and the rise of Diocletian in 284, almost thirty emperors came to power, of whom only three died a natural death.
The straightforwardness of the “soldier emperors,” many of whom came from the rank and file, was reflected in the military uniform the Roman army, which during this period for the first time achieved noticeable uniformity.
In the 3rd century, the long-sleeved tunic became widespread. This tunic spread thanks to the influence of numerous German mercenaries who served in the Roman army.
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German scout, early 3rd century. |
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Germanic warrior, Thorsberg, 3rd century. |
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Palmyra scout. III century. |
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In Roman icons of the 3rd century and later, Roman soldiers were depicted wearing a tunic with long narrow sleeves, a cloak and trousers.
It can be assumed that the wearing of northern European clothing in the Roman army first spread among the soldiers of auxiliary units, then the imperial bodyguards began to dress in this way, and, finally, all legionnaires serving on the northern border of the empire began to wear barbarian clothing.
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Constantius II was the third son of Constantine the Great (306-337). At first he ruled the Eastern Empire, but by 358 he had concentrated power over both parts of the Roman Empire. |
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Protector Sacri Lateris, imperial guard, mid-4th century. |
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Horseman, Equites Catafractarii, mid-4th century. |
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Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" |
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Emperor Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Anonius Bassian), according to eyewitnesses, continued to wear Germanic clothing even in Syria and Mesopotamia.
The Roman army had a large number of irregular units, whose warriors were called numerii and cuneii.
The latter were federati (foederati) - German settlers who received land on the territory of the Empire in exchange for an obligation to perform military service.
All irregular units were led by national commanders, usually chiefs, and wore traditional clothing for their tribe. As a result, such units often became trendsetters in new fashions and trends in the imperial army.
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Emperor Alexander Severus, (222-235). |
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Emperor Caracalla (211-217) |
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Emperor Probus (276-282) |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
When the Danubian army of Septimius Severus marched on Rome, the civilian population, who had only seen these legionnaires on the column of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, was horrified by how the soldiers looked (Dio, LXXV.2.6).
Indeed, the soldiers looked like real barbarians: long-sleeved tunics and trousers (bgasae), which for centuries were considered completely unacceptable clothing for the Romans.
Among other complaints leveled against unpopular emperors like Elagabalus and Komodo was their preference for long-sleeved tunics.
Documents from Egypt written in Greek (the official language of the Eastern Empire) indicate the wearing of various tunics.
The military tunic, known as the sticharion, was decorated with colored stripes (clavi). In addition, the dalmatica tunic had long sleeves, although, judging by the documents, it was worn less often than the sticharion. The name Dalmatic leaves no doubt that this tunic originates from Dalmatia. The soldier emperors who ruled Rome in the 3rd century preferred to wear just such a tunic.
The vast majority of tunics in manuscript illustrations are red or white. Green and blue tunics are much less common. It is generally accepted that the tunics of ordinary legionnaires were white, while the centurions wore red tunics.
| Army of the North | |
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Legionnaire, 193. |
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Praetorian Guard, 193. |
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Roman Falangist, 21 |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
Another item of clothing that should be mentioned is the camisia. Apparently, this was the name of a tight-fitting linen shirt. The name of this shirt came into Latin from the Germanic language through the Gaulish language.
Later, the camisia was often worn by priests, but before that it was very popular among soldiers.
On the eastern borders of the Roman Empire, clothing decorated with embroidery, often made with gold or silver thread, was popular. Initially, the Romans despised such fashion as barbaric, but gradually this style of clothing became common for emperors, their court and bodyguards.
Some examples of military uniforms were very richly decorated. For example, Claudius Herculanus, an imperial horse guard under Aurelian (270-275), is depicted on his tomb wearing a tunic or cloak decorated with an image of a sun with rays. Apparently, this decoration is somehow connected with the cult of the sun god propagated by Aurelian. The design was obviously embroidered with gold thread, which gave it an impressive appearance.
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Tribune of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. |
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Vexillary of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. The reconstruction was carried out based on the findings at Dura-Europos. The vexillum is depicted in accordance with one found in Egypt and currently in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. |
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Centurion of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
All Aurelian's guards could wear such a pattern. In general, the custom of that time was for the emperor to bestow expensive clothing on his supporters in order to emphasize his favor in particular and the greatness of the regime in general.
The rectangular cloak (sagum) was the most popular type of cloak among Roman legionaries for centuries. The image of this cloak is often found in the visual arts of that time.
But there were other versions of the cloak, some of which were used in the army. Among the alternatives, mention should be made of a cloak with a hood (paenula). This cloak was common in the early period, but by the end of the 2nd century its image almost completely disappears on military tombstones, although it continues to be found on the tombstones of civilians.
In addition, soldiers wearing penules are depicted on the wooden door of the Cathedral of St. Sabina in Rome, dating from the 5th century. It is possible that the penula was the cloak of the Praetorian Guard, since it is very often found on monuments dedicated to the guard. The temporary disappearance of these cloaks may be explained by the disbandment of the Praetorian Guard by Septimius Severus, who replaced the guard with a detachment of bodyguards recruited from provincial soldiers.
Later authors mention another cloak with a hood, the so-called birrus or byrus. In Diocletian's edict on prices this cloak appears as byrus Britannicus. Probably, the birrus also looked like a penula, but had an additional flap covering the neck, which made it different from the penula, which had to be worn with a scarf.
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Centurion, III century. |
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Mithraist, Hadrian's Wall, 3rd century. |
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Sailor of the British fleet, 3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
It is known that different cloaks were used for different occasions, and some of them were defined as “military” only. For example, Saturninus' soldiers wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. Saturninus insisted that the soldiers do not take off their cloaks during lunch, so as not to expose their legs...
Emperor Aurelian (270-275) opposed silk and gold-trimmed clothing; he owned the aphorism: “The gods forbid fabric that costs as much as gold.” But at the same time, Aurelian did not forbid his soldiers to wear beautiful clothes, and his guard wore especially beautiful golden armor and dresses.
From the 3rd century onwards it is very difficult to determine whether a bare-legged man is depicted or a man in tight trousers. The paint on the sculptures has long faded and washed away, but the surviving frescoes and mosaics make it possible to determine that tight-fitting trousers were worn tucked into boots.
The pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown. The biographies of the Augustans say that Emperor Alexander Severus wore white trousers instead of the scarlet trousers common at that time.
In addition, the legs could be protected with the help of different types of gaiters. In mosaics and frescoes, gaiters were often worn by hunters and those who worked outdoors.
Among the list of required equipment and normal rations for Gaius Messiah (probably a mounted warrior) discovered at Masada, as well as a similar list for Quintus Julius Proclus, a mounted warrior from Alexandria, there is mention of such a garment as a fascia, that is, a winding. In both cases, windings are mentioned after boots, which suggests that these are windings or foot wraps.
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Soldiers, IV century. |
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Senior military leader, IV century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
Gaiters were rectangular in shape and made of cloth or felt. The clasp below the knee and at the ankle is visible in most images.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Along with the boots came socks. A 3rd century tombstone from Apamea shows a soldier with his socks rolled up over the tops of his boots.
There were a kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Boots with laces on the instep became very popular footwear in the 3rd century.
Until the end of the 3rd century, Roman warriors were rarely depicted wearing headdresses. Therefore, the words of Vegetius, written at the end of the 4th century, that in former times they always wore hats, are surprising. This was done for training so that the helmet put on the head before the fight did not seem too heavy.
| Cavalry from Luxor | |
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Commanders, III-IX centuries. |
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Heavily armed mounted warrior, III-IV centuries. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
This type of headdress was called a pillei and apparently came in two main varieties.
Externally, the pille was a low, borderless cylinder with a smooth or rough texture. The smooth texture obviously corresponded to leather or felt pills, and the rough texture corresponded to sheepskin.
The Edict of Diocletian speaks of pills. made from sheepskin. The Roman pilleum probably goes back to the Persian tiara.
Many warriors wore balaclavas, which softened blows to the head.
The Romans also used armored clothing - thoracomachus, which was an analogue of the medieval aketon.
According to modern reconstructors, thoracomachs were made from linen fabric stuffed with wool. If the thoracomach got wet, it became unpleasant to wear and took a long time to dry.
Roman military ammunition and weapons were produced during the expansion of the empire in large quantities according to established patterns, and they were used depending on the category of troops. These standard models were called res militares. Constant improvement of the protective properties of armor and the quality of weapons, and the regular practice of its use led the Roman Empire to military superiority and numerous victories.
The equipment gave the Romans a clear advantage over their enemies, especially in the strength and quality of their "armor". This does not mean that the common soldier had better equipment than the rich men among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, their Combat vehicles was not best quality, than that used by most of the Empire's opponents, but the armor significantly reduced the number of deaths among Romans on the battlefield.
Military features
Initially, the Romans produced weapons based on the experience and samples of Greek and Etruscan craftsmen. They learned a lot from their opponents, for example, when faced with the Celts, they adopted some types of their equipment, “borrowed” a helmet model from the Gauls, and an anatomical shell from the ancient Greeks.
As soon as Roman armor and weapons were officially adopted by the state, they became the standard for almost the entire imperial world. Standard weapons and ammunition changed several times during the long Roman history, but they were never individual, although each soldier decorated his armor at his own discretion and “pocket”. However, the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome was quite long and complex.
Pugio daggers
The pugio was a dagger that was borrowed from the Spanish and used as a weapon by Roman soldiers. Like other pieces of legionary equipment, it underwent some changes during the 1st century. Typically, it had a large leaf-shaped blade, 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more wide. The middle “vein” (groove) ran along the entire length of each side of its cutting part, or simply protruded only from the front. The main changes: the blade became thinner, approximately 3 mm, the handle was made of metal and inlaid with silver. A distinctive feature of the pugio was that it could be used both for piercing blows and from top to bottom.
Story
Around 50 AD a rod version of the dagger was introduced. This in itself did not lead to significant changes in the appearance of the pugio, but some of the later blades were narrow (less than 3.5 cm wide) and had little or no "waist", although they remained double-edged.
Throughout the entire period of their use as part of ammunition, the handles remained approximately the same. They were made from either two layers of horn, a combination of wood and bone, or covered with a thin metal plate. Often the handle was decorated with silver inlay. It was 10–12 cm long, but quite narrow. A flare or small circle in the middle of the handle made the grip more secure.
Gladius
This was the customary name for any type of sword, although during the Roman Republic the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the medium-length weapon (60 cm-69 cm) that was used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC.
Several different models are known. Among collectors and historical reenactors, two main types of sword are known as gladius (from the places where they were found during excavations) - Mainz (short version with a blade length of 40-56 cm, width 8 cm and weight 1.6 kg) and Pompeii (length from 42 up to 55 cm, width 5 cm, weight 1 kg). Later archaeological finds confirmed the use of an earlier version of this weapon: a long sword used by the Celts and adopted by the Romans after the Battle of Cannae. Legionnaires wore their swords on their right hip. Based on the changes that occurred with the gladius, one can trace the evolution of the weapons and armor of the soldiers of Rome.
Spata
This was the name for any sword in late Latin (spatha), but most often one of long options, characteristic of the middle era of the Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry began to use longer double-edged swords (75 to 100 cm), and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century infantry also used them for a time, gradually moving to carrying spears.
Gasta
This is a Latin word meaning “piercing spear.” Gasts (in some variants hastas) were in service with the Roman legionnaires; later these soldiers began to be called hastati. However, in Republican times they were rearmed with the pilum and gladius, and only the triarii still used these spears.
They were about 1.8 meters (six feet) long. The shaft was usually made of wood, while the “head” was made of iron, although early versions had bronze tips.
There were lighter and shorter spears, such as those used by the velites (quick reaction troops) and legions of the early Republic.
Pilum
The pilum (plural of pila) was a heavy throwing spear two meters long and consisted of a shaft from which protruded an iron shank with a diameter of about 7 mm and a length of 60-100 cm with a pyramidal head. Pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms.
The spears were designed to pierce both shields and armor from a distance, but if they simply stuck they were difficult to remove. The iron tang flexed upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and preventing immediate reuse of the pilum. If hit very hard, the shaft could break, leaving the opponent with a bent shaft in the shield.
Roman Sagittarius (Saggitaria)
Archers were armed with complex bows (arcus) that shot arrows (sagitta). This type of “long-range” weapon was made from horn, wood and animal tendons, held together with glue. As a rule, sagittarii (a type of gladiator) took part exclusively in large-scale battles, when an additional massive blow to the enemy at a distance was required. This weapon was later used to train new recruits on the arcubus ligneis with wooden inserts. Reinforcing bars have been found in many excavations, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.
Hiroballista
Also known as manuballista. It was a crossbow that was sometimes used by the Romans. The ancient world knew many types of mechanical hand weapons, similar to a late medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is the subject of ongoing scientific debate. Roman authors, such as Vegetius, repeatedly note the use small arms, for example, arcuballista and manuballista, respectively cheiroballista.
Although most scholars agree that one or more of these terms referred to hand-thrown weapons, there is disagreement as to whether they were recurve or mechanized bows.
The Roman commander Arrian (c. 86 - after 146) describes in his treatise on Roman cavalry "Tactics" shooting from a mechanical hand weapon from a horse. Sculpted bas-reliefs in Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. They are remarkably similar to a late medieval crossbow.
Infantrymen serving the chiroballista carried dozens of lead throwing darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective range of up to 30 m, much longer than a javelin. The darts were attached to the back of the shield.
Digging tools
Ancient writers and politicians, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of shovels and other digging tools as important tools of war. The Roman legion, while on the march, dug a ditch and rampart around their camps every night. They were also useful as improvised weapons.
Armor
Not all troops wore reinforced Roman armor. Light infantry, especially in the early Republic, used little or no armor. This made it possible to move faster and reduce the cost of army equipment.
Legionnaire soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used various types of protection. Some wore chain mail, while others wore Roman scale armor or a segmented lorica, or a cuirass with metal plates.
This latter type was a complex piece of armament that, in certain circumstances, provided superior protection for chain mail (lorica hamata) and scale armor (lorica squamata). Modern spear testing has shown that this species was impervious to most direct hits.
However, without the padding it was uncomfortable: reenactors confirmed that wearing the linen, known as subarmalis, freed the wearer from the bruises that appear both from prolonged wearing of the armor and from a blow inflicted by a weapon on the armor.
Auxilia
In the 3rd century, troops are shown wearing Roman mail armor (mostly) or the standard 2nd century auxilia. The artistic account confirms that most soldiers of the late Empire wore metal armor, despite Vegetius' claims to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the treatise Notitia show that armorers were producing mail armor in the late 4th century. They also produced the armor of gladiators of Ancient Rome.
Roman armor Lorica segmentata
It was an ancient form of body armor and was primarily used in the early Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The Roman armor itself consisted of wide iron strips (hoops) attached to the back and chest with leather straps.
The stripes were placed horizontally on the body, overlapping each other, they surrounded the torso, fastened at the front and back with copper hooks, which were connected with leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional stripes ("shoulder protectors") and chest and back plates.
The uniform of the Roman legionnaire's armor could be folded very compactly, since it was divided into four parts. It has been modified several times during its use: the currently recognized types are Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50 AD), Corbridge (c. 40 AD to 120) and Newstead (c. 120, possibly early 4th century).
There is a fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Giulia in Romania, where a "hybrid" variant appears to have existed: the shoulders are protected by scale armor and the torso hoops are smaller and deeper.
The earliest evidence of wearing Lorica segmantata dates to around 9 BC. e. (Dangstetten). Roman legionnaire armor was used for quite a long time: until the 2nd century AD, judging by the number of finds from that period (more than 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain).
However, even in the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the lorica hamata, as it was still the standard uniform for both heavy infantry and cavalry. The last recorded use of this armor dates back to the late 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain).
There are two opinions as to who used this form of armor in Ancient Rome. One of them states that only legionnaires (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmenta. Auxiliaries more often wore lorica hamata or squamata.
The second view is that both legionnaires and auxiliaries used segmentate type Roman warrior armor, and this is supported to some extent by archaeological finds.
Lorica segmentation provided more protection than hamata, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The costs associated with making the segments for this type of Roman armor may explain the return to regular chainmail after the 3rd–4th century. At that time, development trends military force changed. Alternatively, all types of Roman warrior armor may have fallen out of use as the need for heavy infantry diminished in favor of fast mounted troops.
Lorica hamata
It was one of the types of chain mail used in the Roman Republic and spread throughout the Empire as standard Roman armor and weapons for primary heavy infantry and secondary troops (auxilia). It was mainly made of iron, although sometimes bronze was used instead.
The rings were tied together, alternating closed elements in the form of washers and rivets. This resulted in very flexible, reliable and durable armor. Each ring had an internal diameter from 5 to 7 mm and an external diameter from 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the lorica hamata had flaps similar to the shoulders of the Greek linothorax. They started from the middle of the back, went to the front of the body and were connected by copper or iron hooks, which were attached to pins riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings made up one lorica hamatu.
Although labor intensive to produce, it is believed that with good maintenance they could be used continuously for several decades. The usefulness of the armor was such that the later appearance of the famous lorica segment, which provided greater protection, did not lead to the complete disappearance of the hamata.
Lorica squamata
Lorica squamata was a type of scale armor used during the Roman Republic and later periods. It was made of small metal scales sewn to a fabric base. It was worn, and this can be seen in ancient images, by ordinary musicians, centurions, cavalry troops and even auxiliary infantry, but legionnaires could also wear it. The shirt of the armor was formed in the same way as the lorica hamata: from the middle of the thigh with reinforced shoulders or equipped with a cape.
The individual scales were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. The plates were not very thick, ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in), which may have been a common range. However, since the scales overlapped in all directions, multiple layers provided good protection.
Sizes ranged from 6 mm (0.25 in) wide x 1.2 cm high, to 5 cm (2 in) wide x 8 cm (3 in) high, with the most common sizes being approximately 1.25 by 2.5 cm. Many had rounded bottoms, while others had pointed or flat bases with cut corners. The plates could be flat, slightly convex, or have a raised middle membrane or edge. All of them on the shirt were basically the same size, but the scales from different chain mail varied significantly.
They were connected in horizontal rows, which were then sewn to the backing. Thus, each of them had from four to 12 holes: two or more on each side for attachment to the next one in a row, one or two at the top for attachment to the backing, and sometimes at the bottom for attachment to the base or to each other.
The shirt could be opened either at the back or at the bottom on one side to make it easier to put on, and the opening was closed with ties. Much has been written about the supposed vulnerability of this ancient Roman armor.
No specimens of whole scaly Lorica squamata have been found, but there have been a few archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts. The original Roman armor is quite expensive and only affordable by extremely wealthy collectors.
Parma
It was a round shield three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but was solidly made and was considered effective protection. This was ensured by the use of iron in its structure. It had a handle and a shield (umbo). Finds of Roman armor are often unearthed complete with these shields.
Parma was used in the Roman army by units lower class: velites. Their equipment consisted of a shield, javelin, sword and helmet. Later parma was replaced by scutum.
Roman helmets
Galea or cassis varied greatly in shape. One of the early types was the bronze "Montefortino" helmet (bowl-shaped with a rear visor and side protective plates), used by the armies of the Republic until the 1st century AD.
It was replaced by Gallic analogues (they were called “imperial”), which provided protection to the soldier’s head on both sides.
Today, craftsmen who create the armor of Roman legionnaires with their own hands are very fond of making them.
Baldrick
Also known as baldrick, bowdrick, bouldrick, and other rare or obsolete pronunciations, it is a belt worn over one shoulder, usually used to carry a weapon (usually a sword) or other implement such as a bugle or drum. The word can also refer to any belt in general, but its use in this context is perceived as poetic or archaic. These belts were a mandatory attribute of the armor of the Roman Empire.
Application
Baldriks have been used since ancient times as part of military clothing. All warriors, without exception, wore belts with their Roman armor (photos of some are in this article). The design provided greater weight support than a standard waist belt, without restricting arm movement and allowing easy access to the item being carried.
In more recent times, such as the British Army of the late 18th century, a pair of white baldricks crossed across the chest was used. Alternatively, especially in modern times, it may serve a ceremonial role rather than a practical one.
Baltei
In ancient Roman times, a balteus (or balteus) was a type of baldric usually used to hang a sword. It was a belt that was worn over the shoulder and slanted down to the side, usually made of leather, often decorated precious stones, metals or both.
There was also a similar belt worn by the Romans, especially soldiers, called a sintu, which was fastened around the waist. It was also an attribute of Roman anatomical armor.
Many non-military or paramilitary organizations include balteas as part of their ceremonial dress. The 4th Degree Colored Corps of the Knights of Columbus uses it as part of their uniform. Balteus supports a ceremonial (decorative) sword. The reader can see photos of the armor of Roman legionnaires along with the Balteans in this article.
Roman belt
The Cingulum Militaryare is a piece of ancient Roman military equipment in the form of a belt decorated with metal fittings, which soldiers and officials wore as a rank title. Many examples have been found in the Roman province of Pannonia.
Kaligi
Kaligas were heavy boots with thick soles. Caliga comes from the Latin callus, meaning “hard.” So called because hobnails (nails) were driven into the leather soles before being sewn onto a softer leather lining.
They were worn by the lower ranks of Roman cavalry and infantry, and possibly by some centurions. The strong connection between the Kaligs and ordinary soldiers is obvious, as the latter were called Kaligati (“loaded”). In the early first century AD, soldiers nicknamed two or three-year-old Guy "Caligula" ("little shoe") because he wore miniature soldier's clothing, complete with viburnums.
They were stronger than closed boots. In the Mediterranean this could be an advantage. In the cold and humid climate In northern Britain, extra woven socks or wool in winter might have helped to insulate the feet, but caligas were replaced there by the end of the second century AD by the more practical "closed boots" (carbatinae) in the civilian style.
By the end of the 4th century they began to be used throughout the Empire. Emperor Diocletian's decree on prices (301) includes a set price for uninscribed carbatinae made for civilian men, women and children.
Caliga sole and openwork top part were cut from a single piece of high-quality cow or ox hide. The lower part was attached to the midsole by means of latches, usually of iron, but sometimes of bronze.
The secured ends were covered with an insole. Like all Roman shoes, the caliga had a flat sole. It was laced down the center of the foot and at the top of the ankle. Isidore of Seville believed that the name "caliga" came from the Latin "callus" ("hard skin") or from the fact that the shoe was laced or tied (ligere).
Shoe styles varied from manufacturer to manufacturer and region to region. The placement of the nails was less variable: they functioned to provide support to the foot, much like modern athletic shoes do. At least one provincial manufacturer of military boots has been identified by name.
Pteruga
These are strong skirts made of leather or multi-layered fabric (linen), with stripes or lappets sewn on them, worn around the waist by Roman and Greek warriors. Also, in a similar way, they had stripes sewn onto their shirts, similar to epaulettes, protecting their shoulders. Both sets are usually interpreted as belonging to the same garment, worn under the cuirass, although in the linen version (linothorax) they may have been permanent.
The cuirass itself can be constructed in different ways: plate-bronze, linothorax, scale, plate or chain mail variant. The pads can be arranged in a single row of longer strips or two layers of short, overlapping blades of graduated length.
In the Middle Ages, especially in Byzantium and the Middle East, such stripes were used on the back and sides of helmets to protect the neck while leaving it free enough for movement. However, no archaeological remains of leather safety helmets have been found. Artistic representations of such elements can also be interpreted as vertically stitched quilted textile protective coverings.
This issue is based on the three-volume book “ Military history” Razin and the books “On Seven Hills” by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those who are engaged in the production of military miniatures.
Brief historical background
Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.
Roman army in different time had different numbers, number of legions, different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.
In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.
At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu – 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring ( proles). Each property category fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd – 22; 3rd – 20; 4th – 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.
Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.
After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.
Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).
Organization of the Roman army
After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.
Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.
The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.
Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.
Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”
Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.
The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.
Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would face death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.
Command structure of the Roman army
In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.
Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.
As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.
The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.
The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.
According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.
Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.
Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.
All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.
Training in the Roman Army
The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.
The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.
The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Mary, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced into the Roman army new system training, reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.
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Fig. 3 – Cohort battle formation. |
Discipline
The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.
The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.
Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.
If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.
But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.
The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.
The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and not to become arrogant.
For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.
Roman camp
The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some Roman camps. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.
The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.
The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (one and the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile thrown, ballista, metal cannonballs, catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined, forming an almost impassable obstacle.
Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.
In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.
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Rice. 7 – Weapons. |
A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.
A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.
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Rice. 8 – Scutums (shields). |
Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.
The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, like a modern helmet.
Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones hanging on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.
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Fig 12 – Centurion. |
The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried a sword with right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.
Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.
References
1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. t., Moscow, 1987
2. On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.
3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.
4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.
5. Flags of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.
6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchina; Moscow, 1981.
Publication:
Library of the Military Historical Commission - 44, 1989
