Space processes examples. Cosmic processes and mineral formation
Cosmic phenomena and processes- events of cosmic origin that connect or may have a damaging effect on people, agricultural animals and plants, economic objects and the natural environment. Such cosmic phenomena can be the fall of cosmic bodies and dangerous cosmic radiation.
Humanity has an enemy more dangerous than the nuclear bomb, global warming or AIDS. Currently, about 300 cosmic bodies are known that can cross the earth's orbit. These are mainly asteroids ranging in size from 1 to 1000 km. In total, about 300 thousand asteroids and comets have been discovered in space. Until the last moment we may not know anything about the approaching disaster. Scientists astronomers have recognized: the most modern systems Space tracking is very weak. At any moment, a killer asteroid can “emerge” straight from the cosmic abyss, rapidly approaching the Earth, and our telescopes will detect it only when it is too late.
Throughout the history of the earth, collisions with cosmic bodies with a diameter from 2 to 100 km are known, of which there were more than 10.
Reference: On the morning of June 30, 1908, residents Eastern Siberia were struck by a terrifying vision - a second sun appeared in the sky. It appeared suddenly and for some time eclipsed the usual daylight. This strange new “sun” moved across the sky with amazing speed. A few minutes later, shrouded in black smoke, it fell below the horizon with a wild roar. At the same instant, a huge pillar of fire shot up over the taiga and the roar of a monstrous explosion was heard, which was heard hundreds and hundreds of miles away. The terrifying heat that instantly spread from the site of the explosion was so strong that even tens of miles from the epicenter, people’s clothes began to smolder. As a result of the fall Tunguska meteorite, 2500 square meters were devastated. km (this makes up 15 territories of the Principality of Liechtenstein) of taiga in the Podkamennaya Tunguska river basin. Its explosion was equivalent to 60 million tons of TNT equivalent. And this despite the fact that its diameter was only 50 - 60 m. If he had arrived 4 hours later, then all that would be left of St. Petersburg would be horns and legs.
In Arizona, there is a crater with a diameter of 1240 m and a depth of 170 m.
About 125 celestial bodies are considered potentially dangerous, the most dangerous is asteroid No. 4 “Apophis”, which on April 13, 2029. may crash into the ground. Its speed is 70 km/sec, diameter is 320 m, weight is 100 billion. T.
Recently, scientists discovered the asteroid 2004 VD17, which has a diameter of approximately 580 m and weighs 1 billion. i.e., the probability of its collision with the ground is 5 times higher, and this collision is possible as early as 2008.
Emergency and extreme situations caused by the temperature and humidity conditions of the environment.
During changes in air temperature and humidity, as well as their combinations, emergency sources such as severe frosts, extreme heat, fog, ice, dry winds, and frost appear. They can cause frostbite, or hypothermia, heat or sunstroke, an increase in the number of injuries and deaths when falling.
Human living conditions depend on the ratio of temperature and air humidity.
Reference:In 1932 Neagara Falls froze due to severe frosts.
Subject. Man-made emergencies
Lecture outline:
Introduction.
1. Emergencies caused by transport incidents.
2. Emergencies caused by fires and explosions at business facilities
3. Emergency situations caused by the release of chemically hazardous substances.
4. Emergency situations associated with the release of radioactive substances.
5. Emergencies caused by hydrodynamic accidents.
Educational literature:
1. Protection of the population and economic facilities in emergencies
Radiation safety, part 1.
2. Protection of the population and territory in emergencies
auto V.G.Shakhov, ed. 2002
3. Emergency situations and rules of conduct for the population when they occur
auto V.N. Kovalev, M.V. Samoilov, N.P. Kokhno, ed. 1995
The source of a man-made emergency is a dangerous man-made incident, as a result of which at the facility, certain territory or water area a man-made emergency occurred.
Emergency technogenic nature- this is an unfavorable situation in a certain territory that has arisen as a result of an accident, a catastrophe, which may result or has resulted in human casualties, damage to human health, environment, significant material losses and disruption of people's livelihoods.
Dangerous man-made incidents include accidents and disasters at industrial facilities or transport, fire, explosion or release of various types of energy.
Basic concepts and definitions according to GOST 22.00.05-97
Accident is a dangerous man-made incident that creates a threat to the life and health of people at an object, a certain territory or water area and leads to the destruction of buildings, structures, equipment and vehicles, disruption of the production or transport process, as well as damage to the natural environment.
Catastrophe- This is a major accident, usually causing loss of life.
Technogenic danger- this is a state internal to a technical system, industrial or transport object that has energy. The release of this energy in the form damaging factor may cause harm to humans and the environment.
Industrial accident– an accident at an industrial facility, technical system or industrial setting.
Industrial disaster– a major industrial accident that resulted in casualties, damage to human health, or destruction and destruction of an object, material assets of significant size, and also led to serious damage to the environment
A.G. Zhabin, Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences
In mineral crystals, rocks Ah, in the layered strata of sediments signs are recorded and preserved for billions of years that characterize not only the evolution of the Earth itself, but also its interaction with space.
Terrestrial and cosmic phenomena.
In geological objects in the language of physical and chemical properties unique genetic information about the impact of cosmic processes on Earth is recorded. Speaking about the method for extracting this information, the famous Swedish astrophysicist H. Alfven states the following:
"Since no one can know what happened 45 billion years ago, we are forced to start with current state solar system and step by step restore more and more early stages its development. This principle, which highlights unobservable phenomena, underlies modern approach to the study of the geological evolution of the Earth; his motto: “the present is the key to the past.”
In fact, it is now possible to qualitatively diagnose many types of external cosmic influence on the Earth. Astroblemes on the planet testify to its collision with giant meteorites. earth's surface(Earth and Universe, 1975, 6, pp. 13-17.-Ed.), the appearance of denser types of minerals, displacement and melting of various rocks. Cosmic dust and penetrating cosmic particles can also be diagnosed. It is interesting to study the connection between the tectonic activity of the planet and various chronorhythms (time rhythms) caused by cosmic processes, such as solar activity, supernova explosions, and the movement of the Sun and the Solar System in the Galaxy.
Let us discuss the question of whether it is possible to identify cosmogenic chronorhythms in the properties of earthly minerals. Rhythmic and large-scale, the nature of solar activity and other cosmophysical factors covering the entire planet can serve as the basis for planetary “benchmarks” of time. Therefore, the search and diagnosis of material traces of such chronorhythms can be considered as a new promising direction. It jointly uses isotope (radiological), biostratigraphic (based on fossil remains of animals and plants) and cosmogenic-rhythmic methods, which in their development will complement each other. Research in this direction has already begun: astroblemes have been described, layers containing cosmic dust have been discovered in salt strata, and the periodicity of crystallization of substances in caves has been established. But if in biology and biophysics Lately Since new special branches of cosmorhythmology, heliobiology, biorhythmology, and dendrochronology have arisen, mineralogy still lags behind such studies.
Periodic rhythms.
Particular attention is now being paid to searching for possible forms fixation in minerals of the 11-year cycle of solar activity. This chronorhythm is recorded not only on modern ones, but also on paleoobjects in clay-sandy sediments of the Phanerozoic, in CoIIenia algae from the Ordovician (500 million years ago), and on sections of fossil Permian (285 million years ago) petrified trees. We are just beginning to look for the reflection of such cosmogenic rhythmicity in minerals that grew on our planet in the hypergenesis zone, that is, in the very upper part of the earth’s crust. But there is no doubt that climatic periodicity of a cosmogenic nature will manifest itself through different intensities of circulation of surface and groundwater (alternating droughts and floods), different heating of the upper film of the earth’s crust, through changes in the rate of destruction of mountains, sedimentation (Earth and Universe, 1980, 1, p. 2-6. - Ed.). And all these factors influence the earth's crust.
The most promising places for searching for signs of such cosmogenic chronorhythms are the weathering crust, karst caves, zones of oxidation of sulfide deposits, salt and flysch type sediments (the latter are layered alternations of rocks of different compositions, caused by oscillatory movements of the earth's crust), so-called ribbon clays associated with periodic melting of glaciers.
Let us give several examples of periodicity recorded during the growth of mineral crystals. Calcite stalactites (CaCO3) from the Sauerland caves (Germany) have been well studied. It has been established that the average thickness of the layer growing on them every year is very small, only 0.0144 mm. (growth rate is approximately 1 mm in 70 years), and the total age of the stalactite is about 12,000 years. But against the background of zones, or shells, with annual periodicity, thicker zones were also discovered on the stalactites, which grew at 10-11 year intervals. Another example is celestine crystals (SgSO4) up to 10 cm in size, which grew in voids among the Silurian dolomites of Ohio (USA). They reveal very fine, well-consistent zoning. The power of one pair of zones (light and dark) ranges from 3 to 70 microns, but in some places where there are many thousands of such pairs, the power is more stable 7.5 - 10.6 microns. Using a microprobe, it was possible to determine that the light and dark zones differ in the value of the Sr/Ba ratio and the curve has a pulsating character (sedimentary dolomites had become completely petrified by the time they were leached and voids formed). After consideration possible reasons For the occurrence of such zoning, preference was given to the annual periodicity of crystallization conditions. Apparently, warm and hot chloride waters containing Sr and Ba (water temperature ranges from 68 to 114C) and moving upward in the interior of the Earth were periodically, once a year, diluted with surface waters. As a result, fine zoning of celestite crystals could arise.
A study of thin-layered sphalerite crusts from Tennessee (USA), found within the Pine Point ore deposit, also showed the periodic growth of shells, or zones, on these crusts. Their thickness is about 5 - 10 microns, with thicker ones alternating through 9 - 11 thin zones. The annual periodicity in this case is explained by the fact that penetrating into the ore deposit groundwater change the volume and composition of solutions.
Fine annual zoning is also present in agate growing in the near-surface layer of the earth's crust. In descriptions of agates made back in the last century, up to 17,000 thin layers in one inch are sometimes noted. Thus, a single zone (light and dark stripe) has a power of only 1.5 µm. It is interesting to compare such a slow crystallization of agate minerals with the growth of nodules in the ocean. This speed is 0.03 - 0.003 mm. per thousand years, or 30 - 3 microns. in year. Apparently, the above examples reveal a complex chain of interrelated phenomena that determine the influence of the 11-year cycle of solar activity on the growth of mineral crystals in the surface layer of the earth's crust. Probably, changes in meteorological conditions under the influence of solar corpuscular radiation are manifested, in particular, in fluctuations in water content in the upper sections of the earth's crust.
Supernova explosions.
In addition to annual and 11-year chronorhythms, there are single cosmogenic “benchmarks” of time. Here we mean supernova explosions. Leningrad botanist N.V. Lovellius studied the structure of the growth rings of an 800-year-old juniper tree growing at an altitude of 3000 m on one of the slopes of the Zeravshan ridge. He discovered periods when growth of tree rings slowed down. These periods fall almost exactly on the years 1572 and 1604, when supernovas exploded in the sky: Tycho Brahe's supernova and Kepler's supernova. We do not yet know the geochemical and mineralogical consequences of intense cosmic ray fluxes in connection with the five supernova explosions that occurred in our Galaxy over the last millennium (1006, 1054, 1572, 1604, 1667), and we do not yet know how to diagnose such signs. It is important here not so much to see traces of primary cosmic rays in terrestrial minerals (something is already known here), but to find a method for determining time intervals when in the past cosmic rays had a particularly intense impact on our planet. Such time intervals, synchronized throughout the Earth, could be compared to ubiquitous layers known age marking stratigraphic horizons. According to astrophysicists, during the existence of the Earth, about ten times the stars closest to the Sun flared up as supernovae. Thus, nature puts at our disposal at least ten consecutive chronoreferences, common for the entire planet. Mineralogists will have to find traces of such cosmogenic temporary reference points in the properties of mineral crystals and the rocks they compose. An example is lunar regolith. It reflects the history of the impact of solar wind, galactic cosmic rays, and micrometeorites on the Moon. Moreover, large cosmogenic chronorhythms here should manifest themselves in more contrast, because the Moon does not have an atmosphere, and, therefore, cosmic influences on it are not so greatly distorted. A study of the regolith showed that the intensity of proton irradiation on the Moon from 1953 to 1963 was four times the average intensity for the previous several million years.
The idea of the causal relationship of periodicity geological processes on Earth, with the frequency of interaction between the Earth and Space, it increasingly penetrates into the consciousness of geologists and planetary scientists. It has now become clear that periodization geological history, geochronology is associated with solar activity through the unity of its temporal structure. But new data have recently been received. It turned out that planetary tectono-magmatic (mineralogical) epochs correlate with the length of the galactic year. For example, for post-Archean time it was possible to establish nine maxima of deposition mineral matter. They took place approximately 115, 355, 530, 750, 980, 1150, 1365, 1550 and 1780 million years ago. The intervals between these maxima are 170 - 240 million years (an average of 200 million years), that is, equal to the duration of the galactic year.
Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences G.L. Pospelov, analyzing the place of geology in natural science, noted that the study of multi-stage geological complexes will lead this science to the discovery of phenomena such as “quantization” of various processes in the macrocosm. Mineralogists, together with stratigraphic geologists, astrogeologists, and astrophysicists, are collecting facts that in the future will make it possible to create a time scale common to all planets of the Solar System.
There are different forms and size, however, just recently, astronomers have discovered a completely new type of these cosmic objects: fluffy and smoky, like clouds, super-diffuse galaxies contain an incredibly low number of stars. For example, a recently discovered super-diffuse galaxy 60,000 light-years across (about the size of our Milky Way) contains only 1 percent stars.
To date, thanks to the joint work of the Keck Telescope and the Dragonfly Telephoto Array, astronomers have discovered 47 superscattered galaxies. They have such a low percentage of stars that the night sky here would appear completely empty.
These space objects are so unusual that astronomers are still not sure how they could have formed in the first place. Most likely, superscattered galaxies are so-called failed galaxies that ran out of galactic material (gas and dust) at the time of their formation. Perhaps these galaxies were once part of larger galaxies. But most of all, scientists are amazed by the fact that super-scattered galaxies were discovered in the Coma cluster, a region of space filled with dark matter and galaxies with colossal rotation rates. Given these circumstances, it can be assumed that super-scattered galaxies were once literally torn to shreds by the gravitational madness going on in this corner of space.
"Suicide" of an asteroid
The Hubble Space Telescope recently witnessed a very rare cosmic phenomenon - the spontaneous destruction of an asteroid. Typically, such a set of circumstances is caused by cosmic collisions or too close approach to larger cosmic bodies. However, the destruction of asteroid P/2013 R3 under the influence of sunlight turned out to be a somewhat unexpected phenomenon for astronomers. The increasing influence of the solar wind caused R3 to rotate. At some point, this rotation reached a critical point and broke the asteroid into 10 large pieces weighing about 200,000 tons. Slowly moving away from each other at a speed of 1.5 kilometers per second, pieces of the asteroid ejected an incredible amount of small particles.
A star is born
While observing the object W75N(B)-VLA2, astronomers witnessed the formation of a new celestial body. Located just 4,200 light-years away, VLA2 was first discovered in 1996 by the VLA (Very Large Array) radio telescope located at the San Augustine Observatory in New Mexico. During their first observation, scientists noted a dense cloud of gas emitted by the tiny young star.
In 2014, during the next observation of object W75N(B)-VLA2, scientists noted obvious changes. In such a short period of time from an astronomical point of view, the celestial body has changed, but these metamorphoses did not contradict previously created scientifically predictable models. Over the past 18 years, the spherical shape of the gas surrounding the star has acquired a more elongated shape under the influence of accumulated dust and cosmic debris, essentially creating a kind of cradle.
An unusual planet with incredible temperature changes
Space object 55 Cancri E has been nicknamed the “diamond planet” because it is almost entirely composed of crystalline diamond. However, scientists have recently discovered another unusual feature of this cosmic body. Temperature differences on the planet can spontaneously change by 300 percent, which is simply unimaginable for a planet of this type.
55 Cancri E is perhaps the most unusual planet within its system of five other planets. It is incredibly dense, and its complete orbit around the star takes 18 hours. Under the influence of the strongest tidal forces of the native star, the planet faces it with only one side. Since the temperature on it can vary from 1000 thousand degrees to 2700 degrees Celsius, scientists suggest that the planet may be covered with volcanoes. On the one hand, this could explain such unusual temperature changes, on the other hand, it could refute the hypothesis that the planet is a giant diamond, because in this case the level of carbon contained would not meet the required level.
The volcanic hypothesis is supported by evidence found in our own solar system. Jupiter's satellite Io is very similar to the planet described, and tidal forces directed at this satellite turned it into one continuous giant volcano.
The strangest exoplanet is Kepler 7b
Gas giant Kepler 7b is a real revelation for scientists. At first, astronomers were struck by the incredible “obesity” of the planet. It is about 1.5 times larger than Jupiter, but has much less mass, which could mean that its density is comparable to that of Styrofoam.
This planet could easily sit on the surface of an ocean, if it were possible to find an ocean large enough to accommodate it. Additionally, Kepler 7b is the first exoplanet for which a cloud map has been created. Scientists have found that the temperature on its surface can reach 800-1000 degrees Celsius. Hot, but not as hot as expected. The fact is that Kepler 7b is located closer to its star than Mercury is to the Sun. After three years of observing the planet, scientists figured out the reasons for these inconsistencies: clouds in the upper atmosphere reflect excess heat from the star. Even more interesting was the fact that one side of the planet is always covered with clouds, while the other always remains clear.
Triple eclipse on Jupiter
An ordinary eclipse is not such a rare occurrence. And yet a solar eclipse is an amazing coincidence: the diameter of the solar disk is 400 times bigger than the moon, and at this moment the Sun is 400 times farther from it. It so happens that the Earth is ideal place in order to observe these cosmic events.
Solar and lunar eclipses are truly beautiful phenomena. But in terms of entertainment, the triple eclipse on Jupiter outperforms them. In January 2015, the Hubble telescope captured three Galilean satellites - Io, Europa and Callisto - lined up in front of their "gas daddy" Jupiter.
Anyone on Jupiter at that moment could have witnessed a psychedelic triple solar eclipse. The next such event will not occur until 2032.
Giant star cradle
Stars are often found in groups. Large groups are called globular star clusters, and they can contain up to one million stars. Such clusters are scattered throughout the Universe, and at least 150 of them are located inside the Milky Way. All of them are so ancient that scientists cannot even imagine the principle of their formation. However, just recently, astronomers discovered a very rare cosmic object - a very young globular cluster, filled with gas, but without stars inside it.
Deep among the Antennae group of galaxies, located 50 million light-years away, there is a gas cloud whose mass is equivalent to 50 million Suns. This place will soon become a “nursery” for many young stars. This is the first time astronomers have discovered such an object, and so they compare it to a “dinosaur egg about to hatch.” From a technical point of view, this “egg” could have “hatched” a long time ago, since, presumably, such regions of space remain starless for only about one million years.
The importance of opening such objects is colossal. Since they can explain some of the most ancient and as yet inexplicable processes in the Universe. It is quite possible that it is precisely such regions of space that become the cradles of incredibly beautiful globular clusters that we can now observe.
A rare phenomenon that helped solve the mystery of cosmic dust
NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is installed directly on board the modernized Boeing 747SP aircraft and is designed to study various astronomical events. At an altitude of 13 kilometers above the Earth's surface there is less atmospheric water vapor, which would interfere with operation infrared telescope.
Recently, the SOFIA telescope helped astronomers solve one of the cosmic mysteries. Surely many of you who have watched various programs about space know that we all, like everything in the Universe, consist of star dust, or rather, of the elements from which it consists. However, scientists for a long time could not understand how this star dust does not evaporate under the influence of supernovae, which carry it throughout the Universe.
Using its infrared eye to peer at the 10,000-year-old supernova Sagittarius A East, SOFIA discovered that the gathering dense regions of gas around the star act as cushions, repelling cosmic dust particles, protecting them from the effects of the explosion's heat and shock wave.
Even if 7-20 percent of cosmic dust could survive the encounter with Sagittarius A East, then it would be quite enough to form about 7,000 space objects the size of Earth.
Perseid meteor collides with the Moon
Every year from mid-July until about the end of August, you can see the Perseid meteor shower in the night sky, but the best place to start observing this cosmic phenomenon is by observing the Moon. On August 9, 2008, amateur astronomers did just that, witnessing an unforgettable event - the impact fall of meteorites on our planet. natural satellite. Due to the latter's lack of atmosphere, meteorites falling on the Moon occur quite regularly. However, the fall of the Perseid meteors, which, in turn, are fragments of the slowly dying comet Swift-Tuttle, was marked by especially bright flashes on the lunar surface, which could be seen by anyone who has even the simplest telescope.
Since 2005, NASA has witnessed about 100 similar meteorite impacts on the Moon. Such observations could one day help develop methods to predict future meteorite impacts, as well as means to protect future astronauts and lunar colonists.
Dwarf galaxies containing more stars than huge galaxies
Dwarf galaxies are amazing cosmic objects that show us that size doesn't always matter. Astronomers have already conducted studies to find out the rate of star formation in medium and large galaxies, but there was a gap in this matter about tiny galaxies until recently.
After the Hubble Space Telescope provided infrared data on the dwarf galaxies it was observing, astronomers were surprised. It turned out that star formation in tiny galaxies occurs much faster than star formation in larger galaxies. What is surprising is that larger galaxies contain more gas, which is required for the appearance of stars. However, in tiny galaxies, the same number of stars are formed in 150 million years as are formed in galaxies of standard and larger sizes in about 1.3 billion years of hard and intense work of local gravitational forces. And what’s interesting is that scientists don’t yet know why dwarf galaxies are so prolific.
Humanity has taken its first active steps towards understanding space quite recently. Only about 60 years have passed since the launch of the first spacecraft with the first satellite on board. But during this short historical period of time, it was possible to learn about many cosmic phenomena and conduct a large number of diverse studies.
Oddly enough, with a deeper knowledge of space, more and more mysteries and phenomena are opening up for humanity that do not have answers at this stage. It is worth noting that even the closest cosmic body, namely the Moon, is still far from being studied. Due to the imperfection of technology and spacecraft, we do not have answers to a huge number of questions that relate to outer space. Nevertheless, our portal site will be able to answer many questions that interest you and tell you a lot of interesting facts about cosmic phenomena.
The most unusual space phenomena from the portal website
A rather interesting cosmic phenomenon is galactic cannibalism. Despite the fact that galaxies are inanimate beings, one can still conclude from the term that it is based on the absorption of one galaxy by another. Indeed, the process of absorbing their own kind is characteristic not only of living organisms, but also of galaxies. So, currently, very close to our galaxy, a similar absorption of smaller galaxies by Andromeda is taking place. There are about ten such absorptions in this galaxy. Among galaxies, such interactions are quite common. Also, quite often, in addition to cannibalism of planets, their collision can occur. When studying cosmic phenomena, they were able to conclude that almost all the studied galaxies have at some time had contact with other galaxies.
Another interesting cosmic phenomenon can be called quasars. This concept refers to unique space beacons that can be detected using modern equipment. They are scattered in all remote parts of our Universe and indicate the origin of the entire cosmos and its objects. The peculiarity of these phenomena is that they emit a huge amount of energy, its power is greater than the energy emitted by hundreds of galaxies. Even at the beginning of the active study of outer space, namely in the early 60s, many objects were recorded that were considered quasars.
Their main characteristics are powerful radio emission and fairly small sizes. With the development of technology, it became known that only 10% of all objects that were considered quasars were actually these phenomena. The remaining 90% emitted virtually no radio waves. All objects related to quasars have very powerful radio emission, which can be detected by special earthling instruments. Still, very little is known about this phenomenon, and they remain a mystery to scientists; a lot of theories have been put forward about this, but scientific facts there is no information about their origin. Most tend to believe that these are nascent galaxies, in the middle of which there is a huge black hole.
A very well-known and at the same time unexplored phenomenon of the cosmos is dark matter. Many theories speak about its existence, but not a single scientist has been able to not only see it, but also record it with the help of instruments. It is still generally accepted that there are certain accumulations of this matter in space. In order to conduct research on such a phenomenon, humanity does not yet have the necessary equipment. Dark matter, according to scientists, is formed from neutrinos or invisible black holes. There are also opinions that no dark matter doesn't exist at all. The origin of the hypothesis about the presence of dark matter in the Universe was put forward due to the inconsistencies of gravitational fields, and it was also studied that the density of cosmic spaces is non-uniform.
Outer space is also characterized by gravitational waves, these phenomena are also very little studied. This phenomenon is considered to be distortion of the time continuum in space. This phenomenon was predicted a very long time ago by Einstein, where he spoke about it in his famous theory of relativity. The movement of such waves occurs at the speed of light, and it is extremely difficult to detect their presence. At this stage of development, we can observe them only during fairly global changes in space, for example, during the merger of black holes. And even observation of such processes is possible only with the use of powerful gravitational-wave observatories. It should be noted that it is possible to detect these waves when emitted by two powerful interacting objects. The best quality of gravitational waves can be detected when two galaxies come into contact.
More recently, vacuum energy has become known. This confirms theories that interplanetary space not empty, but busy subatomic particles, which are constantly subject to destruction and new formations. The existence of vacuum energy is confirmed by the presence of cosmic energy of the antigravitational order. All this sets cosmic bodies and objects in motion. This raises another mystery about the meaning and purpose of the movement. Scientists have even come to the conclusion that vacuum energy is very high, it’s just that humanity has not yet learned to use it, we are used to getting energy from substances.
All these processes and phenomena are open for study at the present time; our portal site will help you get acquainted with them in more detail and will be able to give many answers to your questions. We have detailed information about all studied and little-studied phenomena. We also have cutting-edge information on all the space exploration that is currently underway.
Micro black holes, which were discovered quite recently, can also be called an interesting and rather unexplored cosmic phenomenon. The theory of the existence of very small black holes in the early 70s of the last century almost completely overturned the generally accepted theory of the big bang. It is believed that microholes are located throughout the Universe and have a special connection with the fifth dimension, in addition, they have their influence on time space. To study phenomena associated with small black holes, the Hadron Collider was supposed to help, but such experimental studies are extremely difficult even with the use of this device. Nevertheless, scientists do not abandon the study of these phenomena and their detailed study is planned in the near future.
In addition to small black holes, phenomena are known that reach gigantic sizes. They are characterized by high density and a strong gravitational field. The gravitational field of black holes is so powerful that even light cannot escape this pull. They are very common in outer space. There are black holes in almost every galaxy, and their sizes can exceed the size of our star by tens of billions of times.
People who are interested in space and its phenomena must be familiar with the concept of neutrinos. These particles are mysterious primarily due to the fact that they do not have their own weight. They are actively used to overcome dense metals such as lead, since they practically do not interact with the substance itself. They surround everything in space and on our planet, they easily pass through all substances. Even 10^14 neutrinos pass through the human body every second. These particles are mainly released by radiation from the Sun. All stars are generators of these particles; they are also actively ejected into outer space during stellar explosions. To detect neutrino emissions, scientists placed large neutrino detectors on the bottom of the seas.
Many mysteries are connected with the planets, namely with the strange phenomena that are associated with them. There are exoplanets that are located far from our star. Interesting fact we can say that even before the 90s of the last century, humanity believed that planets outside our solar system could not exist, but this is completely wrong. Even at the beginning of this year, there are about 452 exoplanets, which are located in various planetary systems. Moreover, all known planets have a wide variety of sizes.
They can be either dwarf giants or huge gas giants that are the size of stars. Scientists are persistently searching for a planet that would resemble our Earth. These searches have not yet been successful, since it is difficult to find a planet that would have such dimensions and an atmosphere of similar composition. At the same time, for the possible origin of life, optimal temperature conditions are also necessary, which is also very difficult.
Analyzing all the phenomena of the planets being studied, in the early 2000s it was possible to discover a planet similar to ours, but still it has a significantly larger size, and it completes a revolution around its star in almost ten days. In 2007, another similar exoplanet was discovered, but it is also large in size, and a year passes on it in 20 days.
Research into cosmic phenomena and exoplanets, in particular, has made astronauts aware of the existence of a huge number of other planetary systems. Each open system gives scientists a new body of work to study because each system is different from the other. Unfortunately, still imperfect research methods cannot reveal to us all the data about outer space and its phenomena.
For almost 50 years, astrophysicists have been studying weak radiation, discovered in the 60s. This phenomenon is called the microwave background of space. This radiation is also often referred to in the literature as cosmic microwave background radiation, which remains after the big bang. As is known, this explosion marked the beginning of the formation of all celestial bodies and objects. Most theorists, when advocating the Big Bang theory, use this background as proof that they are right. The Americans even managed to measure the temperature of this background, which is 270 degrees. Scientists after this discovery were awarded the Nobel Prize.
When talking about cosmic phenomena, it is simply impossible not to mention antimatter. This matter is, as it were, in constant resistance to to the ordinary world. As you know, negative particles have their positively charged twin. Antimatter also has a positron as a counterweight. Due to all this, when the antipodes collide, energy is released. Often in science fiction there are fantastic ideas in which spaceships have power plants that operate due to the collision of antiparticles. Physicists have achieved interesting calculations, according to which the interaction of one kilogram of antimatter with a kilogram of ordinary particles will release an amount of energy that is comparable to the energy of the explosion of a very powerful nuclear bomb. It is generally accepted that ordinary matter and antimatter have a similar structure.
Because of this, the question arises about this phenomenon: why do most space objects consist of matter? The logical answer would be that similar accumulations of antimatter exist somewhere in the Universe. Scientists, answering a similar question, start from the theory of the big bang, in which in the first seconds a similar asymmetry in the distribution of substances and matter arose. Scientists managed to obtain a small amount of antimatter in laboratory conditions, which is enough for further research. It should be noted that the resulting substance is the most expensive on our planet, since one gram of it costs 62 trillion dollars.
All of the above cosmic phenomena are the smallest part of everything interesting about cosmic phenomena, which you can find on the website portal. We also have many photos, videos and other useful information about outer space.
Among natural phenomena, affecting geological environment and geographical envelope, cosmic processes play an important role. They are caused by incoming energy and matter falling on cosmic bodies of different sizes - meteorites, asteroids and comets.
Cosmic radiation
A powerful stream of cosmic radiation directed towards the Earth from all sides of the Universe has always existed. “The outer face of the Earth and the life that fills it are the result of the versatile interaction of cosmic forces... Organic life is only possible where there is Free access cosmic radiation, because to live means to pass through oneself the flow of cosmic radiation in its kinetic form,” believed the creator of heliobiology, A. L. Chizhevsky (1973).
Currently, many biological phenomena of the Earth's geological past are considered global and synchronous. Living systems are affected by an external source of energy - cosmic radiation, the action of which was constant, but uneven, subject to sharp fluctuations, up to the strongest, expressed in the form of impact action. This is due to the fact that the Earth, like everything else, rotates around the center of the Galaxy in the so-called galactic orbit (time full turn called the galactic year and it is equal to 215-220 million years), periodically fell into the zone of action of jet streams (jet outflow of cosmic matter). During these periods, the flow of cosmic radiation hitting the Earth increased, and the number of space aliens - comets and asteroids - increased. Cosmic radiation played a leading role during explosive periods of evolution at the dawn of life. Thanks to cosmic energy, the conditions were created for the emergence of the mechanism of cellular organisms. The role of cosmic radiation at the boundary of the Cryptozoic and Phanerozoic during the “population explosion” is important. Today we can speak more or less confidently about the decreasing role of cosmic radiation over the course of geological history. This is due to the fact that either the Earth is in a “favorable” part of the galactic orbit, or it has developed certain protective mechanisms. In early geological eras, the flow of cosmic radiation was more intense. This is expressed by the greatest “tolerance” to cosmic radiation of prokaryotes and the first unicellular organisms, and mainly blue-green algae. Thus, cyanides were found even on the inner walls of nuclear reactors, and high radiation did not affect their life in any way. The impact of hard short-wave and ultra-short-wave irradiation on organisms with different genetic structures, levels of organization and protective properties was selective. Therefore, the impact of cosmic radiation can explain both mass extinctions and significant renewal of the organic world at certain stages of geological history. Not without the participation of cosmic radiation, the ozone screen arose, which played a decisive role in the further direction of earthly evolution.
Cosmogeological processes
Cosmogeological processes are associated with the fall of cosmic bodies - meteorites, asteroids and comets - to Earth. This led to the appearance of impact, impact-explosion craters and astroblemes on the earth's surface, as well as to the impact-metamorphic (shock) transformation of rock matter in places where cosmic bodies fell.
Impact craters formed as a result of falling meteorites have a diameter of less than 100 m, impact-explosive ones, as a rule, over 100 m. It is assumed that astroblemes were formed as a result of the fall of asteroids and comets, i.e. cosmic bodies whose dimensions far exceed those of meteorites. Astroblemes found on Earth range from 2 to 300 km in diameter.
Currently, just over 200 astroblemes have been found on all continents. A significantly larger number of astroblemes rest on the bottom of the World Ocean.
They are difficult to detect and cannot be visually examined. On the territory of Russia, one of the largest is the Popigai astrobleme, located in the north of Siberia and reaching a diameter of 100 km.
Asteroids are bodies of the Solar System with a diameter from 1 to 1000 km. Their orbits are between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This is the so-called asteroid belt. Some asteroids orbit close to Earth. Comets - celestial bodies, moving in highly elongated orbits. The central brightest part of comets is called the nucleus. Its diameter ranges from 0.5 to 50 km. The mass of the nucleus, consisting of ice - a conglomerate of frozen gases, mainly ammonia, and dust particles, is 10 14 -10 20 g. The comet's tail consists of gas ions and dust particles escaping from the nucleus under the influence of sunlight. The length of the tail can reach tens of millions of kilometers in length. Comet nuclei are located outside the orbit of Pluto in the so-called Oort cometary clouds.
While after the fall of asteroids, unique craters remain - astroblemes, after the fall of comets, craters do not appear, but their enormous energy and matter are redistributed in a unique way.
When a cosmic body falls - a meteorite or an asteroid - in a very short instant, within just 0.1 s, a huge amount of energy is released, which is spent on compression, crushing, melting and evaporation of rocks at the point of contact with the surface. As a result of the impact of a shock wave, rocks are formed that have the general name of impactites, and the resulting structures are called impact.
Comets flying close to the Earth are attracted by the Earth's gravity, but do not reach the Earth's surface. They disintegrate in the upper parts and send a powerful shock wave to the earth's surface (according to various estimates it is 10 21 -10 24 J), which brings severe destruction that changes the natural environment, and matter in the form of gases, water and dust is distributed over the earth's surface.
Signs of cosmogenic structures
Cosmogenic structures can be identified on the basis of morphostructural, mineralogical-petrographic, geophysical and geochemical characteristics.
Morphostructural features include a characteristic ring or oval crater shape, clearly visible on space and aerial photographs and distinguished upon careful examination topographic map. In addition, the oval forms are accompanied by the presence of an annular shaft, a central uplift, and a distinct radial-circular arrangement of faults.
Mineralogical and petrographic features are identified on the basis of the presence in impact-metamorphic craters of high-pressure modifications of minerals and minerals with impact structures of impactites, crushed and brecciated rocks.
High-pressure minerals include polymorphic modifications of SiO 2 - coesite and stishovite, small diamond crystals, morphologically different from kimberlite diamonds, and the most high-pressure modifications of carbon - lonsdaleite. They arise in the deep parts of the earth's interior, in the mantle at ultra-high pressures and are not characteristic of the earth's crust. Therefore, the presence of these minerals in craters gives every reason to consider their origin as impact.
In the rock-forming and accessory minerals of the crater, such as quartz, feldspars, zircon, etc., planar structures, or deformation lamellae, are formed - thin cracks of several microns, usually located parallel to certain crystallographic axes of mineral grains. Minerals with planar structures are called shock minerals.
Impactites are represented by melting glasses, often with fragments of various minerals and rocks. They are divided into tuff-like - suvites and massive lava-like - tagamites.
Among the brecciated rocks there are: authigenic breccia - intensely fractured rock, often processed by crushing into flour; allogeneic breccia, consisting of large displaced fragments of various rocks.
Geophysical signs of cosmogenic structures are ring anomalies of gravitational and magnetic fields. The center of the crater usually corresponds to negative or decreased magnetic fields, gravitational minima, sometimes complicated by local maxima.
Geochemical features are determined by the enrichment of heavy metals (Pt, Os, Ir, Co, Cr, Ni) in the analyzed rocks of craters or astroblemes. The above are characteristic of chondrites. But, in addition, the presence of impact structures can be diagnosed by isotopic anomalies of carbon and oxygen, which differ significantly from rocks formed under terrestrial conditions.
Scenarios for the formation of cosmogenic structures and the reality of space disasters
One of the scenarios for the formation of cosmogenic structures was proposed by B. A. Ivanov and A. T. Bazilevsky.
Approaching the surface of the Earth, a cosmic body collides with it. From the point of impact it spreads shock wave, setting the substance in motion at the point of impact. The cavity of the future crater begins to grow. Partly due to ejection, and partly due to the transformation and extrusion of collapsing rocks, the cavity reaches its maximum Depth. A temporary crater is formed. If the size of the cosmic body is small, the crater may be stable. In another case, destroyed material slides down the sides of a temporary crater and fills the bottom. A “true crater” is formed.
In a large-scale impact event, rapid loss of stability occurs, leading to rapid uplift of the crater floor, collapse and subsidence of its peripheral parts. In this case, a “central hill” is formed, and the annular depression is filled with a mixture of fragments and impact melt.
In the history of the Earth, the organic world has repeatedly experienced shocks, as a result of which mass extinctions occurred. Over relatively short periods of time, a significant number of genera, families, orders, and sometimes classes of animals and plants that once flourished have disappeared. There are at least seven major extinctions in the Phanerozoic (the end of the Ordovician, the Famennian-Frasnian boundary in the Late Devonian, the Permian-Triassic boundary, the end of the Triassic, the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, the end of the Eocene, and the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary). Their onset and existing periodicity have been repeatedly tried to be explained by many independent reasons. Researchers are now finding that biotic changes during an extinction event are difficult to explain solely by intrinsic biological causes. An increasing number of facts indicate that the evolution of the organic world is not an autonomous process and the living environment is not a passive background against which this process develops. Fluctuations in the physical parameters of the environment and its changes unfavorable for life are the direct source of the causes of mass extinctions.
The most popular extinction hypotheses are: irradiation as a result of the decay of radioactive elements; exposure to chemical elements and compounds; thermal influence or action of Space. Among the latter is an explosion supernova in the “immediate vicinity” of the Sun and “meteor showers”. In recent decades, the hypothesis of “asteroid” disasters and the hypothesis of “meteor showers” have gained great popularity.
For many years it was believed that the fall of comets to the surface of the Earth is a rather rare phenomenon, occurring once every 40 - 60 million years. But recently, based on the galactic hypothesis expressed by A. A. Barenbaum and N. A. Yasamanov, it was shown that comets and asteroids fell on our planet quite often. Moreover, they not only adjusted the number of living beings and modified natural conditions, but also brought in substances necessary for life. In particular, it is assumed that the volume of the hydrosphere was almost entirely dependent on cometary material.
In 1979, American scientists L. Alvarez and U. Alvarez proposed an original impact hypothesis. Based on the discovery in Northern Italy of an increased content of iridium in a thin layer at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, undoubtedly of cosmic origin, they suggested that at that time there was a collision of the Earth with a relatively large (at least 10 km in diameter) cosmic body - an asteroid. As a result of the impact, the temperatures of the surface layers of the atmosphere changed, strong waves - tsunamis - hit the shores, and evaporation of ocean water occurred. This was caused by the fact that the asteroid, upon entering earth's atmosphere split into several parts. Some fragments fell on land, while others sank into the ocean waters.
This hypothesis stimulated the study of the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary layers. By 1992, iridium anomaly had been discovered in more than 105 locations on different continents and in the cores of drill holes in the oceans. In the same boundary layers, microspheres of minerals formed as a result of the explosion, fragmental grains of shock quartz, isotope-geochemical anomalies of 13 C and 18 O, boundary layers enriched in Pt, Os, Ni, Cr, Au, which are characteristic of chondritic meteorites, were discovered. In addition, the presence of soot was discovered in the boundary layers, which is evidence of forest fires caused by the increased influx of energy during the asteroid explosion.
Currently, evidence has emerged indicating that at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary not only fragments of a large asteroid fell, but also a swarm of fireballs arose, which created a whole series of craters. One of these craters was discovered in the Northern Black Sea region, the other in the Polar Urals. But the largest impact structure resulting from this bombardment is the buried Chicxulup crater in the northern Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. It has a diameter of 180 km and a depth of about 15 km.
This crater was discovered during drilling and is delineated by gravity and magnetic anomalies. The well core contains brecciated rocks, impact glasses, shock quartz and feldspar. Emissions from this crater have been found far away - on the island of Haiti and in Northeastern Mexico. At the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, tektites were discovered - spheres of fused glass, which were diagnosed as formations ejected from the Chicxulup crater.
The second crater that appeared as a result of cosmic bombardment at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary is the Kara astrobleme, located on the eastern slope of the Polar Urals and the Pai-Khoi ridge. It reaches 140 km in diameter. Another crater was discovered on the shelf of the Kara Sea (Ust-Kara astrobleme). It is assumed that a large part of the asteroid fell into the Barents Sea. It caused an unusually high wave - a tsunami, evaporated a significant part of the ocean water and caused large forest fires across the vast expanses of Siberia and North America.
Although the volcanic hypothesis puts forward alternative causes of extinction, it, unlike the impact hypothesis, cannot explain mass extinctions that occurred in other periods of geological history. The inconsistency of the volcanic hypothesis is revealed by comparing eras of active volcanic activity with the stages of development of the organic world. It turned out that during the largest volcanic eruptions, species and generic diversity were almost completely preserved. According to this hypothesis, it is believed that massive outpourings of basalts on the Deccan Plateau in India at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary could lead to consequences similar to the consequences of the fall of an asteroid or comet. Trap outpourings occurred on a much larger scale in the Permian on the Siberian Platform and in the Triassic on the South American Platform, but they did not cause mass extinctions.
The intensification of volcanic activity can lead and has more than once led to global warming due to the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere - carbon dioxide and water vapor. But at the same time volcanic eruptions They also release nitrogen oxides, which lead to the destruction of the ozone layer. However, volcanism is not able to explain such features of the boundary layer as a sharp increase in iridium, which is undoubtedly of cosmic origin, and the appearance of shock minerals and tektites.
This not only makes the impact hypothesis more preferable, but also suggests that the outpouring of traps on the Deccan Plateau could even be triggered by the fall of cosmic bodies due to the transfer of energy that was introduced by the asteroid.
The study of Phanerozoic deposits showed that in almost all boundary layers, corresponding in time to the known Phanerozoic extinctions, the presence of an increased amount of iridium, shock quartz, and shock feldspar was established. This gives reason to believe that the fall of cosmic bodies in these eras, as well as at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, could cause mass extinctions.
The last major disaster in modern history Earth, possibly caused by the collision of the Earth with a comet, is the Great Flood described in the Old Testament. In 1991, Austrian scientists, spouses Edith Christian-Tolman and Alexander Tolman, based on tree rings, a sharp increase in acid content in the Greenland ice sheet and other sources, even established the exact date of the event - September 25, 9545 BC. e. One piece of evidence linking the Flood to cosmic bombardment is the rainfall of tektites over a vast area covering Asia, Australia, South India and Madagascar. The age of the tektite-bearing layers is 10,000 years, which coincides with the dating of the Tolman couple.
Apparently, the main fragments of the comet fell into the ocean, which caused catastrophic earthquakes, eruptions, tsunamis, hurricanes, global downpours, a sharp increase in temperature, forest fires, a general darkening from the mass of dust thrown into the atmosphere, and then a cold snap. Thus, a phenomenon currently known as “asteroid winter” could arise, similar in its consequences to “nuclear” winter. As a result, many representatives of the terrestrial fauna and flora of the historical past disappeared. Especially it concerns large mammals. The marine biota and small terrestrial fauna, most adapted to the living conditions and able to hide for some time from unfavorable conditions, survived. The latter included primitive people.
The earth represents open system, and therefore it is strongly influenced by cosmic bodies and cosmic processes. The fall of cosmic bodies is associated with the emergence on Earth of unique cosmogeological processes and cosmogeological structures. After meteorites and asteroids fall to Earth, explosive craters - astroblemes - remain on the earth's surface, while after the fall of comets, energy and matter are redistributed in a unique way. Falls of comets or their passage in close proximity to the Earth are recorded in geological history in the form of mass extinctions. Largest extinction in organic world at the turn of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic was most likely associated with the fall of a large asteroid.
