ABOUT Invisibility, as a means of eluding the enemy's gaze, was dreamed of by composers folk tales. Pushkin in “Ruslan and Lyudmila” sang of the fairy-tale invisibility cap, which provided such a service to the young captive of Chernomor:

Lyudmila twirled her hat,

On the eyebrows, straight, askew

And she put it on backwards.

So what? O miracle of old days!

Lyudmila disappeared in the mirror.

Turned it over - in front of her

The old Lyudmila appeared.

This fairy-tale plot was also developed by the modern English science fiction writer Herbert Wells, who tried to provide a scientific basis for the ancient dream in “The Invisible Man.” The course of his reasoning is very instructive. The novelist tells the story of a remarkable scientist who discovered a way to make his body invisible. This is what the inventor told his doctor friend about the essence of the discovery:

“You know that bodies either absorb light, or reflect it, or refract it. If a body does not absorb, reflect or refract light, it cannot be visible in itself. You see, for example, an opaque red box because the paint absorbs some of the light and reflects (scatters) the remaining rays. If the box did not absorb any part of the light, but reflected all of it, it would appear to be a shiny, white, silver box. The diamond box would absorb little light, its overall surface would reflect it a little too; only in places, on the edges, the light would be refracted and reflected, giving the brilliant appearance of sparkling reflections - something like a light skeleton. A glass box would be less shiny and not as clearly visible as a diamond box, because there would be fewer reflections and fewer refractions. If you put a piece of ordinary white glass in water, and especially if you put it in a liquid denser than water, it will disappear almost completely, because light, when passing from water to glass, is refracted and reflected very weakly.

“Yes,” said the doctor, “all this is very simple and nowadays every schoolchild knows it.”

– And here’s another fact, also known to every schoolchild. If a piece of glass is crushed into powder, it becomes much more visible in the air, becoming an opaque white powder. This happens because pounding multiplies the facets of the glass, which produce reflection and refraction. A glass plate has only two sides, and in powder light is reflected and refracted by each speck of dust it passes through - and very little of it penetrates through the powder. But if white crushed glass is placed in water, it immediately disappears. Crushed glass and water have approximately the same refractive indices, so when passing from one to the other, very little light is refracted and reflected.

By putting glass in a liquid with the same refractive index, you make it invisible: any transparent thing becomes invisible if it is placed in a medium with the same refractive index. Glass could also be made invisible in air: it must be arranged so that its refractive index is equal to the refractive index of air, because then, passing from glass to air, light will neither be reflected nor refracted at all.

“Yes, yes,” said the doctor. - But a person is not like glass.

- No, it is more transparent.

- And this is a natural scientist speaking! Have you really forgotten physics completely in ten years? Paper, for example, consists of transparent fibers: it is white and impenetrable only because glass powder is white and impenetrable. Oil white paper, fill the spaces between the fibers with oil so that refraction and reflection occur only on the outer surfaces, and the paper will become transparent, like glass. And not only paper, but also cotton fibers, linen fibers, wool, wood, our bones, muscles, nails and nerves! In a word, the entire composition of a person, except for the red substance in his blood and the dark pigment of his hair, everything consists of transparent, colorless tissue: this is how little makes us visible friend friend."

These considerations are absolutely correct. Experiments that prove them are sometimes carried out by nature itself; There are animals lacking coloring substances, so-called albinos. An albino frog has a transparent skin and the muscles show through the insides and skeleton; through the abdominal wall you can see the heart beating and the intestines contracting.

It is certainly true that a transparent object immersed in a medium with the same refractive power becomes invisible. In practice, it is sufficient that the difference in refractive indices does not exceed 0.05. Ten years after the above lines of Wells were written, the German scientist Spalteholtz, professor of anatomy, almost put the same ideas into practice - though not on living organisms, but on dead preparations. You can see these transparent preparations of body parts, even whole animals, in many museums.

The method of preparing transparent preparations, proposed (in 1911) by prof. Shpalteholtz, consists in the fact that after a certain treatment - bleaching and washing - the preparation is impregnated with methyl ester of salicylic acid. It is a colorless liquid with strong refraction. The preparation of rats, fish, and different parts the human body, etc., is immersed in a vessel filled with the same liquid. At the same time, of course, they do not strive to achieve complete transparency of the preparations (they would then become completely invisible, and therefore useless for the anatomist). But if desired, it would be possible to achieve this.

Of course, this is still a long way from realizing Wells's utopia of a living person, transparent to the point of complete invisibility. Far from it, because it is necessary, firstly, to find a way to saturate the tissues of a living organism with an enlightening liquid without disturbing its functions. Secondly, the tissues of these preparations can be invisible only as long as they are immersed in a vessel with a liquid of appropriate refraction. They can be invisible in the air only if their refractive index is equal to the refractive index of air - and we don’t yet know how to achieve this.

The hero of Wells' novel knew how to achieve this and, according to the novelist, managed to make his body completely invisible to others. Anyone who has read this novel or seen the corresponding film knows what power Wells's hero achieved thanks to his invisibility. He quietly enters any room and steals things with impunity. Elusive, thanks to his invisibility, he successfully fights a crowd of armed people. Threatening people with inevitable heavy punishment, the invisible man keeps the inhabitants of the entire city in complete submission. No one escapes his revenge: he can harm everyone, while remaining elusive and invulnerable. “The city is no longer under the queen’s rule! – the invisible one declares in his order. - He is under my authority. Today is the first day of the first year new era, era of the Invisible. I am the Invisible First!

The power of the invisible man is shown in the novel with such convincingness that it leaves no trace of doubt in the reader’s mind. However, the novel owes this not to the scientific impeccability of its reasoning, but to its artistic merits. A great master of narrative style, Wells skillfully glosses over one extremely important physical question, on the correct resolution of which the entire structure of the novel depends.

Indeed, the fate of an invisible man will appear before us in a completely different light if we ask ourselves the following question: being invisible to others thanks to his perfect transparency, could the hero of the novel himself see the world? The answer is that according to the laws of physics, a transparent person must be unable to see. The invisible one must be blind.

It is instructive to understand this interesting physical problem in more detail. Let us remember why the hero of the novel is invisible. Because all parts of his body - including his eyes - became transparent, and, moreover, their refractive index is equal to the refractive index of air. What is the role of the eye? Its lens, vitreous humor and other parts refract light rays so that an image of external objects is obtained on the retina. But if the refrangibility of the eye and the air is the same, then the only reason that gives rise to refraction is eliminated: passing from one medium to another with equal refraction, the rays do not have their own direction, and therefore cannot be collected at one point. The rays must pass through the eyes of an invisible person completely unhindered, without being refracted or even lingering in them due to the complete absence of a coloring matter. The energy of these rays does not produce any material changes in the body of such a person and, therefore, is unable to evoke any image in his consciousness. The invisible is doomed to blindness! All its advantages turn out to be useless. Dreams of unlimited power dissipate without a trace. The invisible one would be completely helpless: he would grope through the streets, asking for alms, which no one could give to the invisible petitioner.

Wells did not solve the problem of invisibility as a source of power, and did not indicate the path to mastering the invisibility cap. A transparent person would acquire his invisibility at too high a price - at the price of complete blindness, extreme helplessness.

The English novelist made this mistake, in all likelihood, quite deliberately. There is a well-known poetic technique, usually used by Wells in his fantastic works: to obscure for the reader the main defect of construction with an abundance of real details. In the preface to the American edition of his science fiction novels, Wells writes: “Once the magic trick has been accomplished, everything else must be shown to be plausible and ordinary. One should rely not on the strength of arguments, but on the illusion created by art.”

But there is another path to solving the same problem - the path on which the art of war has become and which is predicted by nature itself. It consists of painting objects in a color that makes them invisible to the eye. Animal world uses it widely in the struggle for existence.

What the military calls a protective color, zoologists since the time of Darwin have called protective or protective coloration. There are thousands of examples of such protection in the animal world. Animals that live in the desert have for the most part the characteristic yellowish color of the desert; you find this color in a lion, a bird, a lizard, a spider, a worm, and all representatives of the desert fauna. On the contrary, the animal population snowy plains north – be it dangerous polar bear or a harmless loon - are naturally endowed with a white color, making them invisible against the background of snow. Butterflies and caterpillars living on tree bark have a corresponding coloration that reproduces the color of tree bark with amazing accuracy. Insect collectors know how difficult it is to find them, thanks to the perfect protective color that nature has endowed them with. Try to catch a green grasshopper in the meadow at your feet - you will not distinguish it against the green background, as if absorbing it without a trace.

Marine animals living among brown algae have a protective brown color, making them elusive to the eye. In the red algae zone, the predominant protective color is red. The silvery color of fish scales is also protective. It protects fish both from birds of prey, looking out for them from above, and from predators of the water element, threatening them from below. The water surface has a mirror-like appearance not only when viewed from above, but even more so when viewed from below, from the very thickness of the water (total internal reflection); Silvery fish scales merge with this shiny metallic background. And jellyfish and other transparent inhabitants of the waters chose colorlessness and transparency as their protective colors, making them invisible in the surrounding elements.

MBOU "Sosnovo-Ozerskaya average" comprehensive school No. 2"

Environmental conference within

Republican internship site

Research project

Disguise

animals

Completed by: Gruzintseva Liza,

student of 4th "A" class,

Head: Chernoyarova N.S.,

Primary school teacher

2013

Disguise

Target: find out what methods of camouflage are used by animals and plants in nature.

Tasks:

1. What is camouflage of animals and plants,
2. Learn ways to camouflage animals
3. Learn ways to camouflage plants,
4. Find out the meaning of camouflage for animals and plants.

Animal coloring

The word disguise came from the word mask – i.e. make invisible, invisible to the eye. This means that the camouflage of animals is associated with the color of their outer coverings (fur, skin, feathers, etc.). Some animals have very bright colors, while others are painted in modest tones. Why? Obviously xThe color pattern has a certain biological significance in the life of a particular species.

Protective coloration is the ability of animals or plants to camouflage themselves in the environment to become almost invisible. Coloration in animals appeared as a result of natural selection of shape and color. On the background environment the coloring of animals makes them
- either invisible (protective coloring);
- or noticeable (warning coloring).

1.Protective coloration

We see the camouflage or protective coloring of animals at every step. Majority animals are green, yellowish-green or brown-green in color- in harmony with their place a habitat. Butterfly caterpillars are usually the same color as the leaves on which they develop. Green grasshoppers use green camouflage to match the color of the grass that gives them shelter. Birds living in the grass or among branches are also green in color (greenfinches, warblers, green woodpeckers.). In the forests of hot countries with evergreen trees, animals of green colors or multi-colored ones, colored to match the color of the surrounding vegetation, predominate. There you can find green parrots, green lizards, snakes, frogs and other animals in abundance.

Another example of widespread protective or harmonious coloration is observed in deserts globe. Desert Animals, as a rule, are painted in sandy gray and brown colors. Suffice it to recall the coloring of camels - “ships of the desert”. Many rodents, birds, snakes and lizards are painted in desert colors. This color is calledpatronizing or, more correctly, hiding. Thanks to it, animals are invisible to predators. But concealing coloration is also characteristic of many strong predators. It is unlikely that a lion needs protective coloring to escape from enemies. Concealing coloring makes it easier for him to hunt, allowing him to sneak up unnoticed and suddenly take possession of his prey.

Many animals have camouflage colorschange it seasonally. These are animals of the northern zone and northern part temperate zone. The Arctic fox in the tundra has a white winter coat that changes to a dark, brownish one in summer. A similar color change occurs in rodents, such as lemmings. Winter white fur The white hare is replaced by brownish-gray fur in the summer. The common squirrel is covered with red fur in the summer, and in the winter it dresses in a light gray coat, which helps it blend in with the colors of the winter landscape. Seasonal change concealing coloration is another confirmation of its adaptive significance.

Aquatic animals, salps and jellyfish, do not have any protective coloring, but are disguised by the fact that their body is transparent, like water, so they are literally invisible.

In other cases, camouflage similarity serves, on the contrary, as a means for predators to stalk and even attract prey, for example, spiders, snakes, and bearded sharks.

Dismembering coloring

Military structures, vehicles, guns and other objects that need to be hidden are often painted with a random combination of dark and light stripes and spots. Such painting is advantageous in that it conceals the shape and outline of the tank or structure, as if dismembering it into parts and therefore perfectly camouflages it.

This principle of dismembering Man borrowed colors from nature. Many animals, such as tigers, have a similar coloration. Tigers are very difficult to spot among the thickets precisely because of the dark and yellow stripes on the body. This coloring allows the tiger to sneak up close to its prey. Some other predators from the cat family have spotted, rather than striped, colors. Thus, the South American jaguar has black spots scattered throughout its yellow fur. This is also a dismembering color.

Some fish have extremely bizarre colors: dark vertical stripes against a light background. One of these fish, Pterophyllum scalar, is often bred in aquariums. Her homeland is South America. In a normally lit aquarium, it is difficult to notice a fish from above among aquatic plants - its flat body seems to be divided into parts by dark stripes.

Dismembering coloration better conceals the animal when moving in differently colored environments. Even more interesting are animals that, when the color of the environment changes, can change coloring of your body. The color of the environment changes when the animal moves and during various natural phenomena.

Some animals are able to quickly change color in such cases, others - slowly. The commercial sea fish flounder changes color very quickly. She spends a lot of time at the bottom, lying on her side. From the sides, her body is strongly flattened. The side on which the flounder lies is light in color; the other, facing upward, is most often greenish-gray with brown spots. Flounder with a dark color, moved to light sand, in a few minutes acquires a light, uniform color almost indistinguishable from the color of the sandy soil.

Some lizards are also capable of changing color relatively quickly.A classic example of animals with changing colors is the chameleon, which, depending on the situation, instantly turns blue, green, or red.

The change in color of such animals is explained by the fact that their skin contains special cells that contain grains of various pigments (substances painted in different colors). Such cells can have black, yellow, or brown pigment. Pigment cells are capable of changing shape: they either become flat and their surface increases, then they form processes, or, on the contrary, they shrink into a lump. Rapid color change external environment, perceived by the animal’s vision, some cells in its skin cover others and in different combinations give different colors to the skin. If an animal goes blind, it stops changing its color.

In mammals and birds, color depends on the pigments found in the hair and feathers; the structure of the feather also matters. They can only change color when they molt.

Sometimes animals (mostly insects) look like leaves, twigs and sticks. This assimilation various subjects or other animals is called mimicry (imitation).

MIMICRY (from the Greek mimikos - imitative) in animals - one of the types of protective coloring and shape, in which the animal resembles environmental objects, plants, inedible or predatory animals. Helps preserve the animal in the struggle for existence.

When tropical butterfly Kalimma sits on a tree branch and folds its wings, it cannot be distinguished from a leaf. Among Orthoptera there are also insects that, even in a mobile state, can easily be mistaken for a leaf. This insect was given the name “wandering leaf”.

Stick insects are also excellent camouflages, which no bird will find among the twigs and branches of a tree. The caterpillars of our butterflies from the moth family also resort to the same tricks, which are also likened to a tree knot. To top off the similarity, they attach their hind legs to the branches, stretch out and, frozen in a stupor, are indistinguishable from a twig. The caterpillars can remain in this state for hours.

Mimicry observed among vertebrates. Sea fish the needle, found in the Black Sea, perfectly imitates the zoster plant, in the thickets of which it hides. The Australian ragworm fish has such a bizarre (non-fishy) body shape that it is very difficult to spot among seaweed.

2.Warning coloring

Many animals, especially insects that have reliable means of defense (sharp stings, potent poisons, foul-smelling substances), do not need camouflage. Such animals do not camouflage, but, on the contrary, expose themselves and have bright colors. It is beneficial for them to be visible so as not to mistakenly end up in the jaws of a predator. In this case, both the predator and the prey would suffer. Nature found a way out here too. In the process of natural selection, poisonous insects developedwarning coloring, which shows that its owners are unsafe and cannot be touched. (For example, ladybugs, wasps, bumblebees). Moreover, some completely harmless and completely edible insects dress in outfits of repellent colors and thus escape from their enemies.

We already know that animals often protect themselves by imitating different objects in shape and color. It's even more interesting whenone animal species imitates anothermany external signs.

For example, in the tropics South America There live two species of butterflies belonging to different families, strikingly similar to each other in size, shape and color. The study showed that helicoid butterflies are unpleasant to the taste, i.e., inedible. This means that their bright, clearly visible color can be considered a warning sign. White butterflies have the same coloring, but these butterflies are quite edible. Edible view imitates inedible. Similarities with butterflies inedible serves as his protection.

Attractive color characteristic of some animals (birds, fighting fish, etc.) during mating. Serves to attract individuals of the opposite sex, often combined with smells, sounds, and ritual behavior.

Plant coloringdetermined by the presence of different pigments in their organs. The most common green color is associated with chlorophyll, with the participation of which plants carry out photosynthesis. Yellow, red, blue and other colors of flowers and fruits help attract insects that pollinate flowers, as well as birds that distribute fruits and seeds.

Mimicry is also observed in plants, only it usually concerns individual organs, and not the entire organism as a whole, as in animals. For example, the flowers of some orchids are similar to female bumblebees and solitary bees not only in color, but also in smell. The males attracted by it land on orchids and, as a result, transfer pollen from flower to flower. The largest flower on Earth, the rafflesia smells like carrion and is pollinated by flies trying to lay eggs on the flower. The trapping organs of some insectivorous plants resemble bright flowers that attract insects.

Mimicry in plants- similarity (shape, smell, color, etc.) with any other plants or animals.

Conclusions.

The meaning of camouflage for living beings.

In the animal world there is not and cannot be life without struggle: herbivores eat plants, and predators eat weaker animals. But no animal wants to voluntarily fall into the jaws of a predator. If it does not have the strength to defend itself or escape, it must use camouflage. And the methods of camouflage in animals are very diverse and bizarre.

The most common type of disguise isprotective coloration, making the animal invisible against the surrounding background. It helps predators to sneak up on prey, and their potential victims - to more reliably hide from attack. This coloring is especially important on early stages development, when animals are most vulnerable: first of all, it is characteristic of eggs of open-nesting birds, chicks, and young mammals, while adults of the same species often have brighter colors.

In addition to protective colors, there are also dismembering, warning and attracting colors.

Dismembering the coloring makes the animal invisible against a motley background. Various spots or stripes seem to “tear” his body into separate “independent” sections. This coloring allows some animals to hide from numerous enemies (for example, the coloring of fish that live on coral reefs), while others (predators) can quietly get close to the prey (the coloring of pike, anaconda, leopard, etc.).

Warningcoloring (defiantly bright) is inherent in poisonous animals (dart frogs, snakes, etc.), with its help they demonstrate a lack of fear of a potential enemy and, as it were, challenge unprotected animals.

Attractive coloring is characteristic of some animals (birds, fighting fish, etc.) during the mating period. Serves to attract individuals of the opposite sex, often combined with smells, sounds, and ritual behavior.

Plants are characterized by 2 types of adaptive coloration - warning ( poisonous berries crow's eye, crow's eye) and attractive (bright corollas of insect-pollinated flowers).

Mimicry is a useful method of camouflage for animals when they become very similar to some other creatures or objects surrounding nature. In animals, mimicry promotes conservation in the struggle for existence. Mimicry can not only be aimed at passive defense, but also serve as a weapon of attack, luring prey.

Red is the color of blood and yellow bile is indifferent to the body. They could have been other colors and nothing would have changed. But the external color of animals plays an important biological role in adapting to the environment.

The varied colors and shapes of animals are the result of natural selection, the struggle for life. Thanks to them, the species maintains its existence.

Disguise

Application.

Color mimicry:

The plumage of the partridge blends into the surrounding background.

The frog and grasshopper are invisible against the background of their environment.

These fish, living in coral reefs, dissecting coloring.

The bittern is difficult to spot in the reeds. The bright color of the ladybug warns:

Dont touch me!

The protective coloring of camels makes them invisible against the background of sand.

A spider waits for its prey on a flower

A bat is hiding on a tree trunk

Shape mimicry:

These insects look like dry leaves.

Deceptive resemblance:

1 - tropical callima butterfly with spread wings;

2 - she is with folded wings;

3 - caterpillars of the moth moth.

Imitative resemblance:

4 - hornet-shaped glass butterfly;

5 - hornet; c - wasp fly;

7 - hoverfly;

8 - bush bumblebee;

9 - a butterfly from the white butterfly family that is edible for birds;

10 - helicoid butterfly, inedible for birds.

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Patronizing color and shape

protective coloring and shape, coloring and shape of the body of an animal, contributing to the preservation of its life in the struggle for existence (See Struggle for existence). By. and f. are diverse and are found among many groups of invertebrate and vertebrate animals. There are 3 types of P. o. and f.: disguise, demonstration and mimicry (See Mimicry) (including mimetism).

Disguise- coloring and shape, thanks to which the animal becomes invisible against the background of its surroundings, which allows it to more successfully hide from enemies. Almost all such animals are characterized by the ability to hide. Camouflage coloring can be cryptic, concealing and dismembering. Cryptic coloring imitates the background in color and pattern. For example, insects that live in grass or among the foliage of trees are usually green in color (grasshoppers, bugs, butterfly and sawfly caterpillars), animals in the polar regions are white (ptarmigan, polar bear, arctic fox), inhabitants of deserts - yellow or brown (long-eared roundhead, monitor lizard, desert locust). Some animals (cuttlefish, octopuses, some fish, chameleons, etc.) are able to change their color according to the background. This is explained by the presence in their skin of cells with various pigments that, under the influence of impulses from the central nervous system stretch or shrink depending on the perception of the senses, mainly the organs of vision. Concealing coloring is based on the countershadow effect: the most brightly illuminated areas of the body are colored darker than the less illuminated, lightly colored ones; at the same time, the coloring seems monotonous, and the outlines of the animal merge with the background. Concealing coloration is common among aquatic animals (smooth bugs, squids, fish, dolphins), but is also found among terrestrial animals (snakes, lizards, deer, hares, caterpillars of some butterflies). Dismembering coloring, or Disruptive coloring, is characterized by the presence of contrasting stripes or spots that break the body contour into separate areas, making the animal invisible against the surrounding background. Dismembering coloration is often combined with cryptic coloration and is found in many animals: giraffe, zebras, chipmunks, some fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects - locusts, many butterflies and their caterpillars.

Demonstration- a type of color that contrasts with the background against which the animal stands out well. The combination of bright coloring with various protective devices (See Protective devices) is called warning coloring (See Warning coloring). It is typical for some poisonous snakes, salamanders, inedible fish, ladybugs, blister beetles, bees, wasps, etc. There is a demonstration that is not associated with inedibility or toxicity, which is usually combined with cryptic coloring. This is a threatening color and form (or aposematic, frightening), which is demonstrated suddenly, in case of danger. Examples of such coloration include the bright red folds of the mouth in the long-eared roundhead, the ocellated spots in hawkmoth butterflies, and the bright bands and spots in ribbon moths and some locusts. Menacing coloration is usually combined with a threatening posture, movement or intimidating sounds.

By. and f. arose in animals during the process of evolution under the influence of natural selection. Their adaptive nature is relative, because when conditions of existence change, they lose their protective value.

Lit.: Kott H., Adaptive coloration animals, trans. from English, M., 1950; Sheppard F. M., Natural selection and heredity, trans. from English, M., 1970.

I. Kh. Sharova.

Big Soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what “Protective coloring and form” is in other dictionaries:

Protective coloring and shape of animals, coloring and shape of animals, making their owners less noticeable in their habitats; means of passive protection against predators. By. and f. are combined with a certain behavior of the animal, i.e. with ethological... ...

PATRONING, oh, oh; vein, vein. Dictionary Ozhegova. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Aposematic, or repellent, color and shape, one of the types of protective color and shape (See Protective color and shape) in animals. The threatening coloring contrasts with the background of the environment, demonstrated... ...

Animals, a device that helps preserve the life of an animal; the same as the Patronizing color and shape... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

PLANT COLOR- and animals (its biological significance). O. animals has a large biol. meaning. IN different time it was assessed differently. For the first time the doctrine of biology. the meaning of O. was put forward and developed by Darwinism, which evaluated all the characteristics useful to an animal that ... Great Medical Encyclopedia

- (from the Greek kryptós hidden) the similarity of some animals in color and pattern with the background, making them invisible to enemies or victims. See protective coloring and shape... Great Soviet Encyclopedia- PROTECTIVE COLOR AND SHAPE OF ANIMALS. Disguise. Critical coloration is in harmony with the background and is characteristic of animals living in grass and on leaves: green grasshopper (Teiligonia vindissima) 1, green shield bug (Palomena prasind) 3, caterpillar... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

A special form of natural selection (See Natural selection), which determines the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics in the process of evolution (See Secondary sexual characteristics). These characteristics include: the bright mating color of duck plumage,... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia