History of the Celts. Ancient Celts

World history has left humanity many mysteries in the form of unusual architectural structures that scientists find from time to time. The ancient Celts left the most questions about their existence to their descendants. Until now, information about this civilization reaches us in the form of fragmentary and not always reliable legends and myths.

Who are the Celts?

Europe has become a home for many tribes and nationalities. In the process of their development and spread across European territory, they often mixed and became a single whole. In this case, it was difficult to separate the traditions and culture of one people from another.

The history of the Celts looks completely different. They appeared in Europe unexpectedly and quickly filled almost all territories. The barbarian tribes were not afraid to attack the Greeks and Romans. More often than not, their raids were successful and brought large amounts of booty to the tribes.

The name of the nationality was given by the Greeks; it was they who first introduced the word “Celts” into use. It is still unknown where this name came from. Historians come to the conclusion that this could be the name of only one of the many tribes. But in the end, the name was assigned to the entire nation that settled on the territory of modern Britain and had a similar language. Subsequently, the tribes united, which affected the expansion of vocabulary and common cultural traditions.

History of the Celts: several centuries of mystery

Traces of the Celts are found throughout Europe; archaeologists attribute this to the fact that they preferred a nomadic lifestyle and often moved long distances. It is still unknown how the Celtic tribes lived before the fifth century; there is no information about them.

Only from the period of their appearance in Europe they began to be talked about and mentioned in written sources. It’s amazing that somewhere for many centuries there lived a people that no one knew about. After all, neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any idea who a Celt was. This seems incredible and is the reason for the myths about the mystical origin of the people.

Scientists know for sure that the Celts had a clear hierarchy, based not on military power, but on mythology and religious beliefs, which significantly distinguishes this people from other nomadic tribes.

At the moment, almost all data on cultural heritage Celts are counterfeit. All unusual finds of past centuries in Europe had one single explanation - the Celt. This has led to the fact that it is now incredibly difficult to separate fact from fiction.

Archaeologists and historians of our time are collecting material, bit by bit, that has a scientific basis. But studying the history of the Celts is complicated by the fact that they did not have a written language. This is another mystery of the Celtic civilization, because it had a fairly high level of development. Why did the Celts not recognize written sources? This secret died with them.

The Celts' hierarchy was represented by three classes:

• Druids;
• warriors;
• peasants.

Each class was extremely separate and never intersected. Marriages between members of different classes were suppressed.

The decline of Celtic civilization is associated with the conquests of the Roman Empire. She managed to capture all the territories where the Celts lived. They were forced to hide in forests and caves. In Ireland, they built entire underground cities, as local residents believed, through ancient magic and sorcery.

Back then, the Irish were still in awe of the word “Celt”. This was due to the enormous power of the priests, who possessed extraordinary knowledge, transmitted only by word of mouth. With the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, the Celts began to disappear, and over time they became a civilization lost to the world.

Druids - bearers of ancient sacred knowledge

The Celts' priest was part of a special caste of Druids. They lived separately, but willingly shared their knowledge. Training at the Druid school took twenty years; boys were selected from childhood and knowledge was passed on to them orally.

Until now, no one knows what was available to the priests. But throughout Europe there are legends about the abilities of the Druids, who could talk to trees and animals, move huge stones and build structures from them, as well as heal the most terrible wounds and move through the air.

The Druids performed sacrifices in a sacred oak grove and, based on the results of communication with the gods, made decisions on important matters in the tribe. The priests kept a lunar calendar, according to which the entire tribe lived.

Religious beliefs and gods of the Celts: a set of paradoxes

The Druid religion is difficult to understand modern man. She combined high knowledge about existence and the spiritual with cruel rituals. Analyzing this fact, it is difficult to imagine that such actions were done by the same Celt. I can't wrap my head around this. After all, it is impossible to advocate for balance and protect all living things from one’s interference, and commit demonstrative killings of enemies that last several nights.

It is difficult to say how the beliefs in a single god, represented in three forms (which surprisingly resonates with Christianity), coexisted in the Celtic tribes with nightly orgies of priestesses, accompanied by torchlight processions.

Some scientists put forward the version that the Druids and Celts are completely different races. But so far this theory has found neither confirmation nor refutation.

The influence of the Celts on the culture of Europe

Despite the fact that in the minds of many Europeans the words “barbarian” and “Celt” are synonymous, this is fundamentally incorrect. The Germanic peoples, for example, borrowed Celtic technologies and motifs to make jewelry and ceramics. The Roman conquerors enjoyed established trade ties, and the Irish adopted from the Celts a unity with nature and the ability to find inspiration in it.

It is unknown how much the modern peoples of Europe learned from the Celts. Perhaps all our achievements and cultural values ​​are just a faint reflection of the once magnificent and magical civilization of the Celts.

The Celts were first mentioned in texts about 2,500 years ago. However, many of the ancient sources were written by Greeks, Romans and other non-Celtics.

Evidence shows that the Celts were spread over a large area of ​​continental Europe. They lived as far east as modern-day Turkey and even served as mercenaries for the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra. They were never politically united as a single people, but consisted of different groups, including the Gauls (from areas including France) and the Celtiberi (based in Iberia).

They spoke different languages and, in fact, "given the size of the linguistic area, it is unlikely that all the people confirmed by the Greeks and Romans as Celts could communicate with each other in the same language",

- writes Felix Müll

er from the Historical Museum in Bern in his book The Art of the Celts: 700 BC. BC. 700".

He notes that identifying specific works of art as “Celtic” can also be difficult. But if we look at the art from the areas where the Celts were said to have flourished, we can see some of the wonders they produced. For example, over 2,500 years ago, at the Unsa mound in western Switzerland, they left a globe-shaped gold object less than an inch in diameter that was "decorated with approximately 3,600 granules," like the incredibly intricate gold work the Celts might have produced.

Ancient writers tended not to discuss Celtic artistic achievements, but rather their reputation for brutality in war. The Gauls managed to sack Rome in 390 BC. In the same century, when Alexander the Great was campaigning, he received the support of the Celts.

“The king received them kindly and asked them, while drinking, what was what they feared most, thinking that they would say themselves, but that they answered that they were not afraid of anyone, if it were not that Heaven might fall on them,” wrote the Greek writer Strabo

Fighting in the buff?

It was said that some Celts would be completely naked before going into battle; it was intended to have a psychological impact on their enemies.

“They were also very terrifying appearance and the gestures of naked warriors in front, all in the prime of life, and finely built men, and all in leading companies, richly decorated with gold skeins and bracelets,” wrote Polybius (200-118 BC), in the account of the battle that they fought against the Romans.
Perhaps not coincidentally, ancient sources also say that the Celts hated and were against being overweight. Strabo, quoting another writer named Ephorus, wrote:

“They try to be potbellied fat, and any young person who exceeds the standard measure of excess weight is punished.”

While the Celts were eventually Christianized along with for the most part Roman Empire (eventually the Romans regained their lands), ancient sources give hints about the religious beliefs of the Celts.

A poem from Lucan (39-65 AD) describes a grove that was sacred to the Celts. He, along with other sources, suggests that human sacrifice was practiced.

“There was a grove there,
which from the earliest times no human hand
dared to break; hidden from the sun..."
“No sylvan nymphs.
There was no home here, no Pan, but wild rituals
and barbaric worship, terrible altars.
Raised on massive stones; sacred with blood
there were people in every tree..."

The Celts were interested in Druidry. Robert Wisniewski of the University of Warsaw notes in an article published in the journal Palemedes that in 43 AD Pomponius Mela wrote about the Gauls as follows:

“And yet they have their own eloquence, and their own teachers of wisdom, the Druids. These people claim to know the size and shape of the earth and the universe, the movements of the sky and stars, and what the gods intend...” he wrote. “One of the commandments they teach—apparently to make them better for war—has become common knowledge, namely, that their souls are eternal, and that there is a second life for the dead.”

Celts in ancient Britain!?

It is noteworthy that a number of scientists now believe that the ancient Celts did not live in Britain, but were confined to the European continent, with settlements located in the east, like Turkey.

John Collis, professor of archeology at the University of Sheffield, notes in his book The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions that ancient writers refer to Celtic people living in continental Europe, but not to the British Isles. He notes that Strabo actually "distinguishes the Britons from the Celts."

He writes that terms such as Celt and Gallic "were never used for the inhabitants of the British Isles, except in the most general way for all Western Europeans, including non-Indo-European speakers such as the Basques."

His analysis is supported by University of Leicester professor Simon James, who says that "many people are surprised to find that although they 'know' that Britain was inhabited by ancient Celts in pre-Roman times, most British Iron Age scholars have given up on the idea for decades ago,” he writes in a 2004 review of Collis’s book published in the journal British Archaeology.

“The question is not why so many British (and Irish) archaeologists have abandoned the concept of ancient Insular Celts, but how and why did we come to think there was ever anything in the first place? The idea is modern; the ancient islanders never described themselves as Celts, a name reserved for some continental neighbors."

Celts in Turkey?

However, although scholars reject the idea of ​​Celts in ancient Britain, they do find evidence that Celts flourished in Turkey.

“In 278 BC, King Nicomedes I of Bithynia welcomed as allies 20,000 European Celts, veterans who had successfully invaded Macedonia two years earlier. These warriors, who called themselves Galatians, marched into northwestern Anatolia with 2,000 baggage cars and 10,000 non-conspirators: pharmacists and merchants, as well as wives and children."

, write researchers Jeremiah Dandoy, Paige Selinsky and Mary Voigt in a 2002 Journal of Archeology article.

In excavations in Gordion, Turkey, they found evidence of cultural practices that they interpret as Celtic. They found “chilling evidence of strangulation, decapitation and bizarre arrangements of human and animal bones. This practice is well known at Celtic sites in Europe and is now documented for the Anatolian Celts."

Sources and interpretations. The oldest information about the Celts that has reached us is fragmentary and completely random. Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century BC. e.

mentions this people when speaking about the location of the source of the Danube, and Hecataeus, who became famous a little earlier (c. 540-475 BC), but whose work is known only from quotations given by other authors, describes the Greek colony of Massalia (Marseilles) , located, according to him, on the land of the Ligurians next to the possessions of the Celts. In another passage, Hecataeus refers to the Celtic city as Nirax, a site that most likely corresponds to Noria in the territory of ancient Noricum, which can be roughly correlated with the modern Austrian province of Styria.

In his great work "History" Herodotus pays little attention to either the source of the Danube or the Celts. This is unfortunate, since archaeological research has proven the value and accuracy of his judgments about other tribes, especially the Scythians, about whom he received information first-hand. However, it seems important that both Herodotus and, apparently, Hecataeus did not consider it necessary to tell the Greeks in detail about the morals and customs of the Celts.

Herodotus complains that his knowledge of the far west of Europe is scanty, but the historian’s references to the Celts are of some interest. He repeats twice that the Danube flows through their lands and that the Celts are the most western people in Europe, not counting the Kinetes, who presumably inhabited southern Portugal. In the first case, Herodotus places the source of the Danube near Pirena - this name could be correlated with the Pyrenees, but it is known that this was the name of the Greek trading settlement on the north-eastern coast of Spain. The historian goes on to say that the Celts lived at some distance from the Pillars of Hercules, that is, from the Strait of Gibraltar - he could hardly have made such an absurd mistake by placing Pirena in the same area. Thus, Herodotus's reports of the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula indicate that these tribes inhabited vast territories, including the areas adjacent to Massalia and, very likely, ancient Noricum.

It should be noted that the name Celtici survived in South-Western Spain until Roman times - this is the only example of the name of a large Celtic people being immortalized by geography.

No matter how erroneous Herodotus’s ideas about the location of the upper Danube were, his conviction that this river flows in the possessions of the Celts is based not only on the correlation of the source with the Pyrene. Herodotus knew much more about the Lower Danube: he knew that a ship could sail far upstream and that the river carries water across inhabited lands along its entire length. It is reasonable to assume that it was through this route that information about the Celts from the northern reaches reached Greece. Archaeological research proves with greater certainty that the banks of the Upper Danube were the ancestral home of the Celts, from where some tribes moved to Spain, and a little later to Italy and the Balkans. Thus, two sources of information point to the same point on the map.

Before we move on to summarizing the rest of the early historical evidence about the Celts, it is necessary to say a few words about why the name of this people was so widespread in that era. What is this connected with?

It seems clear that at the time of Herodotus, the Greeks considered the Celts to be the largest barbarian people living in the west and north of the Western Mediterranean, as well as in the Alps region. Ephor, who worked in the 4th century BC. BC, names the Celts among the four greatest barbarian peoples known world(the other three are Scythians, Persians and Libyans), and the geographer Eratosthenes in the next century mentions that the Celts populated Western and Trans-Alpine Europe. This is probably due to the fact that the Greeks did not differentiate between individual Celtic tribes. There is no doubt that Herodotus, speaking about other barbarians, for example the Scythians or Getae, saw in them both independent peoples and tribal communities. He was interested in their political institutions, manners and customs; As for languages, the Greeks did not bother themselves with linguistic research, and Herodotus did not take into account the linguistic differences between the barbarian tribes. It is reasonable to assume that even if he never communicated with representatives of the Celts, he knew them from descriptions and could distinguish them from other barbarians. Therefore, the term "Celts" has a purely ethnological meaning and does not necessarily mean "Celtic speakers", contrary to the modern academic concept based on the work of linguistic pioneers George Buchanan (1506-1582) and Edward Lloyd (1660-1709).

So, for four centuries, from the time of Herodotus to the era of Julius Caesar, the lifestyle, political structure and appearance of the Celts were well known to their enlightened southern neighbors. All this information is quite vague, superficial and susceptible to multiple interpretations, but on its basis it is possible to draw certain conclusions about the differences between population groups.

As for the word "Celts" itself, the Greeks recorded it aurally as keltoi, and, with the exception of its use in a narrowly tribal context in Spain, as mentioned above, in other cases it was widely used to designate a collection of tribes with different names - this conclusion is based on later sources than the works of Herodotus. In relation to the population of Britain and Ireland, ancient authors, as far as is known, never used the term “Celts”, and there is no evidence that the inhabitants of the islands themselves called themselves that (however, this does not mean that the islanders were not Celts). The modern, popularized meaning of the words "Celt" and "Celtic" came into use during the heyday of Romanticism in the mid-18th century, then they went beyond the linguistic context in which Buchanan and Llwyd used them, and began to be used unreasonably in a wide variety of areas: in physical anthropology, in relation to insular Christian art and folk life in all its manifestations.

Next, one more question should be clarified: is the speech of the Celts from antiquity really related to living languages, which in philology are usually called Celtic? This is most convincingly evidenced by the works of ancient authors, which give the names of leaders, names of tribes and individual words that belonged to the Celts. This layer of linguistic material is in full accordance with the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family of languages, and there are many examples of words written down in ancient times being preserved in medieval and modern languages ​​of the Celtic group.

The study of the language of the ancient Celts draws on three sources. First of all, these are numerous inscriptions that have survived to this day, mostly in Latin, less often in Greek, recording Celtic words and names (photos 69, 70, 74). They were found on altars and other architectural monuments of the Celtic lands that were part of the Roman Empire. The territory of their distribution is vast: lands from Hadrian's Wall to Asia Minor, Portugal, Hungary, etc. The second source - numismatics - is akin to the first, but less dispersed in space (photo 47, 75). Historically and archaeologically, the inscriptions on the coins are particularly important as they indicate that they were minted by Celtic chieftains or individual clans. The third group of evidence is related to geographical names. These include the names of rivers, mountains and hills, as well as settlements and fortresses. Their direct connection with modern languages ​​can also be established primarily on the materials of ancient authors who mention the Celts in their works; the localization of such names that “survived” in Western and Central Europe is closely related to areas where the Celtic influence was especially strong and persisted for quite a long time. A comparative analysis of Celtic, Teutonic, Slavic names, including those transformed as a result of borrowing by some peoples from others, provides rich material for a variety of interpretations, but this must be done special area philology, and a reliable map of the Celtic names of Europe still awaits its compiler. In the meantime, we can say with confidence that outside the British Isles, Celtic names have been preserved in large numbers in France, Spain, Northern Italy, less often they are found between the Danube and the Alps and further east to Belgrade, and in North-West Germany the Celts left their mark on banks of the Rhine, reached the Weser and, possibly, the Elbe itself. Of course, this picture does not give a complete picture of the area where Celtic names were dispersed in the past, and, in addition, one can find many different reasons why some of them have survived to this day, and some have been consigned to oblivion.

George Buchanan, who introduced the term “Celtic” into linguistics, was the first to prove, based on ancient sources, that the modern Gaelic and Welsh languages ​​grew out of ancient Celtic speech. Thus, the philological meaning of this term is derived from the ethnic research of Herodotus and the later historians and geographers who echoed him.

The large extent of the lands that were once inhabited by the Celts makes it possible to attract archaeological data to study their civilization.

Strictly speaking, archeology is the science that studies the material evidence of human activity in the past. Its object can be the material culture of entire peoples and historical eras, or periods and geographical spaces that existed before the advent of developed civilizations that owned writing. In the latter case, archeology turns into a “silent” science - it is deprived of a language in which to describe various manifestations human life, reflected in the random and scattered remains of anonymous material culture. The goal of modern archaeological research is to look as deeply as possible into the past, to understand and recreate the life of ancient society, and not just to compile an accurate inventory of objects and monuments; however, archeology is often subject to excessive demands that, by its very nature, it is unable to satisfy. Thus, in relation to the Celts, archaeological research must first of all be directed within the narrow framework of several centuries - from Herodotus to Julius Caesar, whose activity marks the beginning and end of the historical era that left written evidence about these tribes. And archaeological data indeed confirm that during these centuries, a vast cultural province existed in the territories already mentioned. The found remains of a barbarian civilization are associated with known to science Celtic tribes and date back to the 4th century BC. e. in Northern Italy, from the 2nd century BC. e. in Southern France and from the 1st century BC. e. almost the entire length of the Roman Empire.

Celts in ancient history. Let us temporarily leave aside material sources and prerequisites - ancient historians should again come to the fore, whose works make it possible to assess the degree of Celts’ intervention in the life of the enlightened world of the ancient Mediterranean. Here we will try to create only a chronological outline of events; more detailed information directly about the Celts will be analyzed in the following chapters.

About a quarter of a century after the death of Herodotus, northern Italy was invaded by barbarians who came along the Alpine passes. Descriptions of their appearance and names indicate that they were Celts, but the Romans called them galli (hence Gallia Cis- and Transalpina - Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul). More than two centuries later, Polybius refers to the invaders under the name galatae, a word used by many ancient Greek authors. On the other hand, Diodorus Siculus, Caesar, Strabo and Pausanias say that galli and galatae were identical designations for keltoi/celtae, and Caesar testifies that the contemporary galli called themselves celtae. Diodorus uses all these names indiscriminately, but notes that the version keltoi is more correct, and Strabo reports that this word was known to the Greeks firsthand, since the keltoi lived in the vicinity of Massalia. Pausanias also prefers the name “Celts” in relation to the Gauls and Galatians. It is now impossible to establish what is causing this terminological uncertainty, but we can confidently conclude that the Celts called themselves keltoi for a long time, although throughout the 5th and 4th centuries BC. e. Other names may have appeared.

Gauls. The Galli, or Gauls, first settled in the upper valley of the Po River and on the banks of its tributaries. They began to oppress and expel the Etruscans, whose civilization at that time was already declining. Perhaps it was the inability of the Etruscans to resist the invaders and, as a result, freedom for robbery, rich booty and inhabited lands that encouraged the transalpine inhabitants to overcome the mountain passes. The fact that they knew the Etruscans and even traded with them for a long time is confirmed by archaeological excavations.

Late Roman historians believed that the Celtic invaders came from the northwest, from Gallia Transalpina, which had been called that way since the 2nd century BC. e. Archaeological evidence suggests that they made their way through the central Alpine passes and that their homeland was located in what is now Switzerland and southern Germany. Ancient historians preserved for us the names of the main tribes. The Insubri were the first to cross the Alps and eventually founded their main settlement, calling it Mediolan (modern Milan). The Insubres were followed by at least four tribes who settled in Lombardy; The Boii and Lingons were forced to pass through their possessions and settle in Emilia, and the last migrants, the Senones, got the less rich lands of the Adriatic coast - they found shelter in Umbria.

The Celts traveled not only as migrants - in search of new lands, with families and household belongings. Fast-moving bands of warriors raided the far southern territories, devastating Apulia and Sicily. Around 390 BC e. They successfully sacked Rome, which served as their number one target until 225 BC. e., when a large Gallic army, strengthened by fresh forces from the northern Alpine regions, was surrounded by two Roman armies and defeated. The end of the independence of Cisalpine Gaul was laid in 192 BC. e., when the Romans defeated the Boii and destroyed their fortress, which was located on the territory of modern Bologna.

According to historical sources, the Celts first appeared in the east in 369–368 BC. e. - then some of their detachments served as mercenaries in the Peloponnese. This fact suggests that the number of Celtic migrations to the Balkans was quite large even before this date. In 335 BC. e. Alexander the Great, who fought in Bulgaria, received delegations from all the peoples living in the territories of the Lower Danube; among them was an embassy of the Celts, who are known to have come from the Adriatic.

Galatians. Two generations passed, and hordes of Galatians flooded Macedonia in the middle of winter - only great troubles could force them to set off at such a time of year, especially since they had families and carts with property with them. The Galatians began to rob the local inhabitants and move forward in search of suitable land for settlement. However, the invaders met serious resistance - further developments of events are described in detail by ancient Greek historians. The names of Bolga and Brenna, the leaders of the Celtic migrations, are known, but it is possible that these were nicknames of patron gods, and not mortal leaders. One way or another, people led by Brenn attacked Delphi, but were defeated. The Greeks, recognized experts in national differences, added Celtic shields to the Persian ones already hung as trophies in the Delphic temple of Apollo - this can undoubtedly be called one of the first exhibitions on the subject of comparative ethnology.

The Celts were quite capable of holding out in the Balkans for a long time, but two tribes that separated from those that captured Macedonia undertook the most curious journey recorded by ancient Greek scientists in the history of Celtic migrations. They moved southeast, towards the Dardanelles. Constant discord with the local residents eventually forced them to cross to Asia Minor, where ample opportunities for plunder and conquest of lands once again opened up for them. Soon the two tribes were joined by a third - the Tectosagi, who chose to leave Greece after the failure at Delphi. For some time, all three tribes indulged in all sorts of outrages and robberies with impunity, but eventually calmed down and settled in Northern Phrygia, which has since become known as Galatia. These tribes had a common capital, which bore the Celtic name Drunemeton, and the Tectosagi settled in the area of ​​​​modern Ankara.

The Galatians managed to maintain their individuality for many centuries. Cut off from their European roots, they remained isolated, and over time they gave their name to Christian communities, to which the famous letter of the Apostle Paul was addressed. Later, in the 4th century AD. e., the Galatians became the subject of very interesting notes by St. Jerome, who, in particular, reports that, in addition to Greek, they spoke their own language, related to the Treverian dialect. Saint Jerome, who traveled through Roman Gaul, was undoubtedly familiar with the Treveri who lived in the Trier region on the Moselle River. Perhaps he heard from their lips the Celtic speech, preserved in a purer form, different from the language of the inhabitants of the heavily Latinized west of Gaul, and, thus, a purely scientific comparative analysis must be seen in his notes, otherwise it is difficult to interpret such a special attitude towards this tribe. As for the language preserved by the Galatians, history knows similar examples: the language of the Goths who invaded the Crimean peninsula in the 3rd century AD. e., gradually replaced Slavic languages, but disappeared completely only after many centuries - its last bearers died in the 17th century.

Until now, we have been talking about the earliest evidence of ancient historians about the Celts; it was concluded that by the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. these tribes occupied vast territories from Spain to Asia Minor and that their ancestral home was presumably the uncivilized areas of Europe north of the Alps, where the enlightened inhabitants of the Mediterranean rarely visited. Historical sources relating to the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. e., they only mention the expansion of the Celtic possessions; it becomes clear that they occupied the entire territory of Gaul (modern France) and that at least some of them came from the regions beyond the Rhine.

In the 1st century BC. e. Gaul became part of the Roman Empire and thus came to the attention of historians, receiving closer attention. Caesar describes Gaul as ethnographically divided between the Aquitanians in the southwest, the Belgae in the northeast, and inhabited by Celts throughout. This message can be considered in the light of archaeology, but at the moment we are of particular interest to the Belgae, who were the most warlike and persistent opponents of the Roman commander.

Belgi. This tribe occupied the north-eastern reaches of Gaul and, according to Caesar, were proud of their “Germanic” roots, which, apparently, simply meant their origin beyond the Rhine, since they spoke a language very similar to the speech of the rest of the Celts who lived in Gaul, and their leaders bore Celtic names. The question of the original meaning of the word "germani" is extremely important, but let us leave it aside for now in order to trace further the historical line outlined by Caesar, which will lead Britain to the borders of the Celtic world. Caesar reports that long before his modern era, the Belgae founded settlements in the southeast of Britain. This is the first and only direct historical evidence of Celtic - or partly Celtic - migrations to Britain. There is a lot of other - archaeological - evidence that earlier Celtic settlements existed on this island, and the same conclusion can be drawn based on written sources. So what is the value of early references to Britain and Ireland in ancient literature?

Britain and Ireland. In the 6th century BC. e., more precisely, no later than 530, the inhabitants of Massalia undertook a journey past the eastern coast of Spain, through the Pillars of Hercules and along the Atlantic coast to the city of Tartessus (map 1). Obviously, this was not the first such voyage from Massalia, but what is important is that one of the sailors who returned on the ship wrote a report in which he provided information not only about the shores of Spain, but also about the lands lying further north along the Atlantic sea routes of Europe. The description of this journey is known as the Massaliot Periplus and is preserved in passages quoted in the 4th century AD. e. Rufus Festus Avienus in the poem "Ora Maritima". Some features of this periplus indicate that it was composed before the conquest of Tartessus by the Carthaginians, which led to the cessation of trade in the Atlantic for colonial Greece.

Map 1. Massalia and Western Sea Routes

The inhabitants of Tartessus, which was probably located near the mouth of the Guadalquivir, had friendly trade relations with the Greeks since the voyage of Koleus from Samos through the Pillars of Hercules around 638 BC. e. The Massaliot Periplus reports that Tartessian merchants visited such northern regions, as the Estrimnids, which meant the Brittany peninsula and the nearby islands, and that the population of these lands traded with the inhabitants of two large islands - Ierne and Albion. This is the earliest mention of Ireland and Britain in history, and the names are Greek variants of words that were preserved by speakers of the Irish branch of the Celtic language. Old Irish Eriu and modern Eire came from an older form of the word, which the Greeks pronounced as "Ierna", and the name Albu was used by the Irish in relation to Britain until the 10th century AD. e. The question is whether these words have Celtic roots or are borrowings from an older language. Most likely, they belong to the Celts, but there is not enough evidence to make a definitive conclusion.

Avienus, of course, could have distorted the ancient source, but still preserved for history the very valuable information contained in the “Massaliot Periplus.”

In any case, the names Ierna and Albion entered the terminology of Greek geographers, including Eratosthenes, by the middle of the 3rd century BC. e. It must be said, however, that although Avienus refers to the Carthaginian Himilcon, a explorer of the 6th century BC. e., the latter, apparently, never visited the British Isles, contrary to existing opinion.

The journey of Pytheas Massaliot, which took place around 325–323 BC. e., became the second oldest source of information about Britain and Ireland. The Periplus of Pytheas is also known only second-hand, but, unlike the Massaliot Periplus, it is quoted - often with disbelief - by many authors, including Polybius, Strabo and Avienus. Britain and Ireland are named by Pytheas as the Pretan Islands. The derived word for the inhabitants of these islands seems to be pretani or preteni, and is probably derived from a Celtic root which survives in the Welsh language: Prydain means Britain, Britain. The Latins, due to the peculiarities of pronunciation, transformed it into Britannia and britani - this is the form in which Caesar uses these words. Consequently, the Pretanian islands meant Ierna and Albion, which is confirmed by the description of the voyage given by Pytheas, and one of the later Greek geographers claims this as a fact.

It is curious that Pytheas did not mention the ancient names Ierna and Albion when speaking about the Pretangian Islands. This may mean that the inhabitants of Massalia, who built land routes trade routes to the northwest, they were familiar and did not require any explanation. However, if we take into account the assumption that Pytheas visited only Britain and was not in Ireland, this may also indicate that he did not doubt the homogeneity of the population of the two islands. Further, although there is an equivalent in Irish literature for the name preteni, this word can designate, firstly, some residents of Britain and, secondly, British settlers in Ireland. The conclusion suggests itself that the name Pretan Islands, which came into use among the Greeks by the 4th century BC. e., indicates the emergence of a new, dominant population in Britain (in Albion), which did not exist at the time when the Massaliot Periplus was created.

All of the above brings us to other issues, primarily related to the Celtic languages. These issues will be addressed following a review of the archaeological data.

European prehistoric background. In this chapter on the origins of the Celts, Herodotus and Caesar have already been mentioned as figures whose activities mark two historical milestones - Herodotus because he is considered the father of history and anthropology, Caesar because his military campaigns ended the independence of the Celts. The works of ancient authors who lived after Caesar certainly contain more useful information about the Celts, but they are not able to change the overall picture. The next task is to consider the problem in the light of archaeology.

In response to a question about the cultural background associated with historical information about the Celts in the period from Herodotus to Caesar, most archaeologists - primarily representatives of continental schools - will without hesitation name two widespread material cultures of the Iron Age, known under the names “Halstatt” and “Latène” and confirming geographically and chronologically written evidence ( cards 4, 6). However, rather than immediately proceeding to a detailed analysis of them, it seems useful to start from a more distant starting point in time and turn to other centuries and regions also illuminated by written history.

Gradual improvement climatic conditions by the end ice age opened up new territories of transalpine Europe for humanity. By the 9th millennium BC. e. even this northern zone, stretching from the Pennines to modern Denmark and the Baltic lands, was inhabited by primitive hunters and fishermen. Over time, climatic trends led to the emergence of a temperate zone in Europe, and for a whole millennium, primitive communities existed in this territory in their ecological niches. In terms of physical type, they were probably no less heterogeneous than their Late Paleolithic predecessors. An influx of new blood brought from the Eurasian steppes, on the one hand, and from Spain or even North Africa- on the other hand, he excluded the possibility of pure races appearing in Europe. Remains of material culture found throughout the temperate climate zone Europe, reflect examples of mutual influence and exchange in different areas at different times. The bearers of this culture can be considered as the oldest population of the indicated zone; It was their heirs - to one degree or another - that later population groups became.

Neolithic settlers. The people of the Mesolithic era were not disturbed until the 4th millennium BC. e., when primitive tribes of farmers and cattle breeders began expanding northward from the peripheral regions of the urban civilizations of the ancient East. In the temperate zone of Europe, the first and most historically important settlers of the Neolithic era came from the southeast and captured the rich and easy-to-cultivate loess lands in the Middle Danube basin, and then penetrated further - to the Rhine and its main tributaries, to the confluence of the Saale and Elbe, to the upper reaches of the Oder.

Neolithic economic life, brought by immigrants, later spread from the Western Mediterranean along the Atlantic coast of Europe to the British Isles, although the earliest Neolithic settlers most likely reached Britain from the Gulf of Lyons through eastern France. The bearers of this economic system led a relatively sedentary lifestyle, which gave them the opportunity to accumulate personal property and the necessary supplies. Settlers everywhere had a significant impact on the populations of the Mesolithic way of life - barter trade stimulated the development of the economy and material culture of the indigenous inhabitants, and over time, when, as a result of the spread of the Danube and Western Neolithic cultures, people began to cultivate the land throughout the temperate zone of Europe, the Mesolithic way of life was preserved only on the eastern and northern outskirts. By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The continuum of interconnected material cultures spread throughout Europe demonstrates the diversity in the origins and abilities of their bearers, as well as in the level of their interaction with the incomparably more civilized world of the Eastern Mediterranean.

The emergence of cattle breeding. Around the same time, two trends emerged in the development of the Neolithic economy: on the banks of rivers, people continued to cultivate the land and grow crops, while in mountainous areas and on the Central European Plain, cattle breeding became the dominant way of life, and not only nomadic. Based on examples from the history of Europe and other regions, it can be assumed that such differences in occupations and living conditions led to the emergence of social associations or political unions. It is also reasonable to assume that tribes of farmers and pastoralists appeared during that period, and the existence of individual tribal unions can be concluded based on the results of studying the remains of material culture.

Early use of metals. First half of the 2nd millennium BC. e., among other things, brought traders of metal products to the territory of Europe and laid the foundation for the processing of metals by its inhabitants. It is difficult to say how Europeans learned processing technologies - either solely through communication with foreign merchants, or migration from Asia Minor became a fundamental factor.

The oldest copper and bronze products, mainly jewelry and weapons, were found in Greece and the Eastern Balkans, in the lands of the Middle Danube and Transylvania. Most of these things have Anatolian prototypes, and the distribution in Greece, Macedonia and even in more northern regions of the Anatolian ceramic style indicates that not only wandering traders from Asia Minor visited there, but also families of immigrants found refuge there.

Here we come to an important point: it is very likely, but not proven, that the Anatolian settlers were native speakers of an Indo-European language. Shedding light on this issue is the task of archeology associated with the study and dating of written monuments of Asia Minor. However, whatever language the ancient metalsmiths of the Balkans spoke, their influence on Central Europe was extremely great, and one of the characteristic objects that they brought with them to the north was a copper or bronze drilled axe. Neolithic herder tribes in Northern and Central Europe had by that time already learned to make stone weapons modeled on Mesolithic deer antler axes, in which holes were also punched for a wooden handle. Major regional cultures developed their own typical forms of axes, but the most common ones definitely trace their origins to metal prototypes. Cattle breeders made stone copies of foreign metal axes for themselves (Fig. 1). The latter were of higher quality and, no doubt, were too expensive, so that people were not able to buy them in large quantities.

There was another way in which metal battle axes with a hole for the handle could have fallen into the hands of European pastoralists of the Neolithic era - from the Caucasus through the Pontic steppes.

The lands to the north of these mountains and to the west, to the Lower Danube, also belonged to tribes of pastoralists. The comparative wealth and exorbitant claims of those who lived on the banks of the Terek and Kuban are evidenced by the tombs of their leaders. Proximity, on the one hand, to the most important metallurgical sources of the Caucasus, and on the other, to the trade routes of the city-states of Asia Minor and Upper Mesopotamia, could make them in some way mentors and educators of the pastoralists who lived on the pasture lands that lay to the north and west.

Here again the question arises about the origin of Indo-European speech - now in connection with the Pontic tribes. If the Hittite rulers really came from precisely these social strata, as some scientists believe, then their geographical cradle could be in the Kuban-Terek area. It is possible, however, that Northern Anatolia was also within the borders of the ancestral homeland of the Indo-Europeans.

Circle of battle ax cultures. In addition to the techniques of metal processing and the manufacture of stone copies of battle axes, the culture of European and Pontic pastoralists had other common features identified through archeology - for ethnology they are perhaps even more important than the types of weapons. For example, based on the study of pottery found in single burials under round mounds, or hills (this was the main method of burial), we can conclude that certain types of vessels and ornaments were widespread (Fig. 2). Both Pontic and European tribes were engaged in pig breeding and kept cattle, which means that in some regions grain crops were grown, if at all, in very small quantities. Perhaps the most interesting question is whether they bred horses and how they used these animals on the farm. Here linguistics comes to the rescue again: documentary evidence from the mid-2nd millennium BC. e. - Hittite and Hittite-related sources - confirm that horse-breeding terminology was fully reflected in the Indo-European language, to the point that even personal names contained “horse” elements.

Horses. Horse skeletons, as well as the bones of pigs and cattle, are often found in burials on the territory of the cultural zone in question. Of course, horses, along with other domestic animals, may have been kept primarily for meat and milk, but it does not appear that the tarpana, a short European horse, was herded along with free-running cattle and raised for slaughter. From a practical point of view, people must have appreciated the endurance of tarpans in very ancient times and used them as draft power. Speed ​​qualities of horses for pastoralists of the 3rd millennium and 2nd millennium BC. e. did not matter, since the speed of movement was dictated by herds of livestock, so tarpans were probably used as pack animals, and horse riding became possible much later - with the advent of selective breeding and better living conditions. We can say with confidence that carts on solid wheels came into use among the inhabitants of the Middle Danube region at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e., but, most likely, they harnessed oxen, not horses.

Indo-Europeans. Common features in material cultures, the importance of horses in the life of eastern and western pastoral tribes, linguistic parallels - all these factors together largely contributed to the creation of the concept of the origin of the Indo-European people, which states that at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. tribes of Indo-European warriors began expansion from Northern Europe or from the Eurasian steppes, eventually conquering all European lands and even some regions of the Near and Central East. On modern stage development of science, it is impossible to seriously talk about the exclusively northern roots of the Indo-Europeans and the existence in the past of migrations of such a huge scale, while the assertion of the purely eastern origin of this people makes the framework of its ancestral home even more vague and requires clarification.

In the opinion of the writer of these lines, most archaeological data concerning the territories between the Black and Baltic Seas indicate the gradual development of similar concepts and needs among different population groups due to the same living conditions, environment and occupations, which could have happened without the participation of settlers, but here at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the material culture and features of the use of horses in the economy, new influences can be traced, brought from the southeast by pastoralists and artisans who lived on the outskirts of the civilizations of Asia Minor. In the lands of Anatolia, Indo-European languages ​​were already spoken at that time, but all that can be said about Europe is that all the inhabitants of the pastoral lands within the continuum, apparently, belonged to a common linguistic group.

It is possible to call the pastoralists - carriers of the culture of battle axes - Indo-Europeans only with a certain assumption and in the most general sense. Further it is necessary to mention other tribes, whose life is more or less illuminated by archaeology. These are the bearers of the Bell-Beaker culture, who created characteristic elegant vessels from reddish clay (Fig. 3), which antiquarians of later eras called goblets or drinking bowls.

Circle of bell-shaped beaker cultures. The carriers of these crops can also be called pastoralists. They roamed vast areas of Western Europe and shared the battle-axe cultures of lands from Bohemia to Britain; their main weapon was a bow with arrows topped with barbed flint points, and the bulk of their herds were sheep. The bell-shaped pottery style most likely developed on the basis of the ceramic tradition that existed in the Western Mediterranean region during the early Neolithic era, and the bell-shaped culture as a phenomenon perhaps represents a Western version of the transition to a predominantly pastoral economy, which was already mentioned above as a widespread trend in Neolithic Europe.

Bearers of the culture of battle axes and tribes armed with bows can be considered as close, complementary social phenomena, despite the difference in their origin (some are Eurasians, the ancestral home of others is the Mediterranean and, possibly, certain areas of North Africa). There is no need to trace the travel routes of the carriers of the Bell-Beaker culture, who left traces of their stay in the caves of France and Spain, in territories from Portugal to Scotland - the remains of representatives of these tribes were also found in the collective burials of Neolithic farmers in Western Europe. The creators of the bell-shaped cups obviously had the ability to adapt to other population groups or forcefully subjugate them to their power. They left behind single burials, without mounds, and the occasional metal jewelry and weapons found in such graves indicate that their former owners traded with copper and bronze processing communities.

The historical significance of the Bell-Beaker culture lies in the fact that the interaction of its bearers with the tribes belonging to the battle-axe culture led to the emergence of many hybrid cultures in which the Eurasian element gradually replaced the rest. The accepted position in Britain that the bearers of the Bell Beaker culture belonged to the Indo-European group has often served as the basis for putting forward various linguistic assumptions, but at the present time it seems clear that the creators of the mixed Bell Beaker culture and battle axes adopted the speech rather from their eastern ancestors, than the Western ones.

Continuity and interpenetration of cultures in the Bronze Age. No matter how different the opinions may be regarding the linguistic kinship of primitive pastoralists, the picture of evolution in the early and middle phases of the Bronze Age does not allow for double interpretation: their natural habitats are still inhabited by the main tribes, mainly pastoralists, who own bronze weapons, which are becoming more numerous, and at the same time preserving the tradition of single burial mounds for their leaders; warriors in power now wear gold-plated jewelry and weapons; battle axes are less common and have symbolic rather than practical meaning. Examples of the activities of these later and undoubtedly more aristocratic societies include the South Germanic Barrow culture, the Wessex culture of southern Britain and the culture of the second period of the Danish Bronze Age. The common point of their heyday can be placed around the 15th century BC. e.

We should not forget, however, that during the same period there were many other population groups - some were mainly engaged in agriculture, others were the last representatives of very ancient tribal communities, and others were carriers of an even more primitive economic way of life. In Europe, especially in its central regions, agricultural communities living on the banks of rivers apparently contributed to the economy of the dominant tribes of pastoralists - they served as the object of raids and robberies, paid tribute, and were in slavery.

Northern Alpine Cultural Province. Throughout the 2nd millennium BC. e. The climate of the temperate zone of Europe became drier, at first this was one of the reasons for the decline in primitive agriculture, and over time it significantly reduced the number of settlements with a primitive agricultural way of life. The study of funeral rituals and the remains of material culture allows us to conclude that the population was generally transitioning to a pastoral economic system and that by the end of the 13th century BC. e. in the lands lying north of the Alps and from Bohemia to the Rhine, that is, in the ancestral home of the Celts, the final series of the most important events of protohistory began to unfold.

First of all, this is the emergence of a radically new set of material cultures and, as a result, changes in funeral ritual in the coastal areas of the Upper Danube. The carriers of the new culture were primarily the tribes that inhabited the lands of modern Austria and Bavaria, as well as the communities associated with them in Southwestern Bohemia. Being settled farmers, they occupied completely different areas than the more ancient tribes of pastoralists who had already gained certain positions in Europe. Of course, the former farmers left the riverine plains not because the climate became too dry, but rather they were displaced by people who brought with them more advanced methods of cultivating the land.

These people founded settlements and lived in rectangular wooden houses, surrounded by gardens and cultivated lands. It is to them that Europe owes the emergence of settled agriculture and the rapid development of bronze casting - the emergence of new methods of metal processing, new forms of weapons and tools, as well as the use of metal products in a variety of areas of the economy (Fig. 4). They most often burned the corpses, and placed the ashes and remains of bones in special vessels, or urns, for burial in burial grounds. Many of these cemeteries are so extensive that they were called fields, after which the term “urn field cultures” came into scientific use.

A primitive agricultural civilization flourished in the lands of the Upper Danube, took root in the Swiss lake region, in the Upper and Middle Rhine valleys, and over time penetrated even further to the west and north. Expansion proceeded slowly as the need arose to conquer new lands, but instead of fighting, trade ties were often established with the indigenous population, and the result was a mixture of old and new cultures, with a strong predominance of the latter, and in different areas this synthesis acquired its own character traits.

In connection with the question of the origins of the Celts, the population of the so-called North Alpine cultural province of the urn fields, centered on the territory of modern southern Germany and Switzerland (Map 2), requires closer study.

The historical background, which served as the basis for the development of the cultural and economic way of life of the former inhabitants of the province, who can be considered its aborigines, has already been outlined. Now it is necessary to try to clarify some facts and resolve questions related to the conditions for the emergence of new preconditions for evolution, because the huge scale of expansion of the mentioned cultural province does not explain everything.

The origins of the culture of the fields of burial urns. In this context, it is necessary to return to the south-eastern zone of Europe. Anatolian trade relations established by copper and bronze craftsmen at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e., were still strong; trade routes ran through the Balkans, along the Middle Danube to the gold-bearing tributaries of the Tisza River and to Transylvania, where rich copper deposits were located. In this region, from the Balkans to Transylvania, distinctive Bronze Age cultures arose; their distribution areas are directly related to the areas of concentration of bronze production and trade. Information about these cultures is somewhat limited by the rigid archaeological research carried out in the region, but it is known that large Bronze Age communities existed for a long time in vast lands along the Middle Danube, including at the foot of the Slovak Mountains, as well as in Transylvania and basins of the Tisza tributaries. In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Minoan-Mycenaean civilization of the Aegeans had a very important influence on the population of this region. This probably occurred to a large extent through trade in gold and copper, as well as other raw materials for which no evidence survives, and possibly slaves.

Three particularly significant factors must be taken into account regarding the population of the Middle Danube region at the height of the Bronze Age: they were sedentary village inhabitants who practiced predominantly the funerary ritual of cremation with the burial of ashes in urns in large cemeteries, and their artisans engaged in the manufacture of metal products were strongly influenced by from the Mediterranean and it was from them that they could adopt new types of weapons and tools.

Here it is necessary to mention that the rulers of the Mycenaean world in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. there were Indo-Europeans who obviously spoke Greek - this conclusion can be drawn from the recently deciphered texts of Linear B. However, the funeral ritual of cremation was not in use among the Greeks of those times. The emergence of the rite of cremation in the form in which it first appeared during the Hungarian Bronze Age and later spread to the north and west of Europe is a rather complex scientific problem. At one time, cremation was practiced by Neolithic communities in Eastern and Central Europe, occasionally resorting to it later - probably on special ritual occasions - so, in essence, the appearance of the fields of funeral urns did not introduce anything new into the practice

Map 2. Northern Alpine Cultural Province of the Urn Fields

burials. Archaeological research concerning the centuries in question testifies to the existence at that time in the territory of Asia Minor of an entire province with a developed cremation ritual, and ceramic objects found in Hungary and in neighboring western lands and belonging to the culture of the fields of burial urns are carried to themselves imprinted with the Anatolian style, which perhaps indicates their origin from eastern metal samples. Unlike the Mycenaeans, the Hittites burned the bodies of their dead kings, as is known from written sources, and recently, on the territory of their ancient capital, archaeologists discovered a cemetery containing the remains of corpses. Thus, it can be assumed that the territories of South-Eastern Europe up to the Small Carpathians were in the sphere of distribution of Anatolian culture in the 2nd millennium BC. e., and possibly from earlier times.

Troubled times. During the heyday of Mycenae, European trade was focused mainly on this market, which brought tangible results in the development of new decorative styles and production techniques. The decline of the Mycenaean civilization and the collapse of the Hittite Empire, which began in the 13th century BC. e., the foundations were shaken international order and economic structure. Evidence of this - the increasing frequency of robberies in the coastal regions of the Eastern Mediterranean - is well known to history. The assumption that the inhabitants of Central Europe were engaged in robberies is unconvincing - the Mediterraneans had many barbarian tribes in their neighbors who occupied more advantageous positions for attack - but the echoes of events in this region were, apparently, very noticeable on the Middle Danube. The turmoil in the Mediterranean could force many farmers to abandon their homes and move to the upper Danube. This is just one of many aspects related to the issue of the distribution of urn fields throughout Europe. The reason for their appearance in Northern Italy and even more distant lands in the northern Carpathians, East Germany and Poland requires a detailed account of other population groups and cultures, which is beyond the scope of the topic under discussion.

Returning to the question of the historical conditions under which the urn field culture took root in the Upper Danube region, three facts must be mentioned that are of paramount importance. Firstly, the new ceramic style was familiar to the inhabitants of at least several Middle Danube villages - objects made in this style are found in mounds and cemeteries containing the remains of corpses and dating back to the times immediately preceding the exodus of the inhabitants from these places. There is also evidence that they mastered crafts, land cultivation techniques and funeral rituals for more than high level, characteristic of the carriers of the culture of the fields of burial urns. Secondly, Hungarian bronzesmiths were technically superior for a long time to their Western contemporaries. This fact, in a sense, explains the use of new types of metal tools by the bearers of the culture of the fields of burial urns, in particular the bronze piercing-cutting sword, and the emergence of their skills in forging sheet metal. Thirdly, the rapid development of copper mining in the Eastern Alps may be associated with the temporary depletion or unavailability of Transylvanian and Slovak resources, contrary to the assumption that the Mycenaean interest in these sources of ore was very intense shortly before the decline of their civilization . We can conclude that the phenomenon of the Upper Danube culture of the fields of burial urns is closely related to the historical situation in the Middle Danube basin, however, the possibility of external influence from the inhabitants of distant lands, primarily steppe ones, coinciding in time with the events discussed above, cannot be completely ignore.

The model of economic structure, settlements, material culture and partly funeral ritual that existed in the North Alpine province of the urn fields was adopted, with some changes, by the historical Celts.

Horsemen and leaders. In the previous paragraphs, from the standpoint of archeology, the stages of the existence of the prehistoric population of Central Europe were examined, starting with its appearance on these lands and ending with the period of strengthening its positions, which occurred around the beginning of the 10th century BC. e. Judging by the contents of the graves, social inequality among the bearers of the culture of the fields of funeral urns was not too great, although in some burials, in addition to vessels with ashes, swords and dishes were found, which indicates that they belonged to the leaders or elders of free clans, to whom in small villages communities could be treated with special respect. The fact that in those days, although rarely, leaders of a higher rank appeared is evidenced by such burials as the burial ground in the vicinity of Milavec in Bohemia: the ashes of the deceased are placed in a bronze vessel mounted on wheels, with a bronze sword and other objects lying nearby. In Hart an der Alz (Bavaria), a burial was discovered containing the remains of a corpse cremation, a skillfully forged sword, three bronze and several clay vessels of fine workmanship, apparently intended for an otherworldly feast, and, what is of greatest interest, remains melted in the fire bronze parts for a four-wheeled cart. This is the first direct evidence that the bearers of the Urn Fields culture used carts in farming and funeral rituals.

The question of the power of the chiefs is extremely important, since most of the surviving material evidence concerning the northern Alpine cultural province relates to the ruling classes rather than to ordinary farmers. There are many factors to consider when answering this question.

During the period of dominance of agricultural communities in the territory of Europe, ancient warlike tribes of pastoralists made their presence felt from time to time, and it is very likely that throughout the expansion of the cultural province of the fields of burial urns, the mixing and interpenetration of cultures did not stop. In addition, some facts indicate eastern influence. In the 8th century BC. e., that is, in the last phase of the Late Bronze Age, in the territory from modern Hungary to the southern outskirts of the North Alpine province, bronze bits and bronze harness parts appear, very similar in type to those found by archaeologists in the Pontic steppes of the Caucasus and even in Iran (Fig. 5) . The question of when and where this horse harness first appeared and who used it is quite complex. Apparently, steppe horse breeders had something to do with this, but their numbers were not very large, their significance from a linguistic point of view is negligible, and their contribution to the history of the Late Bronze Age was limited to the improvement of military affairs and horse breeding. Perhaps these were mercenaries who had served their time from the troops of Assyria and Urartu. Not a single magnificent burial containing their remains has been found, and there is no indication that they used funeral carts in their burial rites.

Next in the chronological chain are the burials of noble warriors who greatly influenced the formation of the Celtic people. In such burials, remains are found placed on carts, enclosed, as a rule, in wooden burial chambers under mound embankments; sometimes, instead of carts, their scattered parts are found. Next to the deceased, his contemporaries usually placed an iron sword and spear, large quantities of clay utensils, and chopped carcasses of a pig and a bull. In addition to cart parts, some burials contain a wooden collar for a pair of teams and bronze bits for two teams and one riding horse.

The people buried in these graves stood at the origins of the development of the Iron Age economic system in Central Europe, and their material culture is usually called Hallstatt - after the name of the place in Austria where the first objects related to this culture were discovered (photo 14, 15). And most importantly, these graves of the ancestral nobility, the so-called “princely” burials, the oldest of which were found in Bohemia, Upper Austria and Bavaria, marked the beginning of a long series of magnificent burials containing corpses and ritual carts and serving as the main source of information about the Celtic leaders and culture in the period from Herodotus to - on the territory of Britain - Caesar.

What were the leaders of the Hallstatt Iron Age like? They used horse harness - improved models of oriental samples, more varied in shape (Fig. 6). The closest prototypes of iron swords or their bronze copies (photo 7) come from the Upper Adriatic, in particular they were made on the territory of modern Bosnia. Wooden burial chambers under the mounds (photos 10, 11) also indicate an eastern source, from which the Scythians drew, or the influence of the Etruscan culture, whose pompous funeral ritual using carts reached its peak in those days. The ritual significance of carts - real ones or their smaller copies - was, of course, known in Bavaria and Bohemia several centuries earlier. Since elements of the urn field culture predominate in the early Hallstatt culture, and their importance remains to a certain extent in subsequent phases of development, it can be assumed that the leaders buried in the first graves containing funerary carts and iron swords were local residents or assimilated descendants of mixed marriages . Their presence in the North Alpine zone led to a more intensive process of cultural borrowing from the inhabitants of the Adriatic, and before the political center began to shift to the west, trade between the inhabitants of the Rhone Valley and Greek Massalia began to develop, and trade routes with the Etruscans were laid through the Central Alpine passes.

Burials containing funerary carts represent only the most remarkable of the many different forms of burials of the early Hallstatt period, but study of the area of ​​​​their distribution, from this period to La Tène times, leads to the conclusion that they belonged to one particular tribe or one "princely house". » last names. Early burials of this type are found in Bohemia, Bavaria and Upper Austria, and most of those dating back to the 6th century BC. e., - in Württemberg, Switzerland, on the Upper Rhine, and individual graves - in Burgundy (map 3). At the beginning of the 5th century BC. e. Direct trade with the Etruscans was established, and two-wheeled chariots took the place of funeral carts - they were found in burials on the Middle Rhine, Koblenz and the Moselle. Soon Champagne becomes an important center of such a funeral ritual (photo 21, 22), and in the 3rd century BC. e. several warriors are buried in accordance with this tradition in Britain. It seems that for two centuries, for reasons that are not entirely clear, some kind of warlike co-

Map 3. Main locations of graves containing funeral carts

a society with a certain power moved within the borders of the North Alpine cultural province. These people did not completely leave their old lands, but the center of their power and wealth gradually shifted to the west. It is worth mentioning that only during the period of the late Hallstatt culture did gold jewelry begin to appear in the burials of leaders (photos 12, 13) - and this should also be associated with the establishment of direct contacts with the Etruscans, since it was their masters who owned other metal objects, also found in these graves and in those belonging to the La Tène culture of the 5th century BC. e. At this point in history, archaeological data finally coincides with written evidence - the earliest mentions of ancient authors about the Celts. However, before going any further, it is necessary to return to the 7th century BC. e. in order to more fully and correctly interpret archaeological and philological data.

Celts as a nation in the 6th century BC. e. The distribution area of ​​Celtic names in the territory of modern Spain and Portugal is quite wide and general outline coincides with the map of the urn fields, the path of the creators of which can be retrospectively traced through Southern France and the Rhone Valley to the southwestern limits of the North Alpine cultural province of the urn fields. Their expansion, which began during the period and conditions of the Late Bronze Age, barely had time to reach Catalonia when the migrants were overwhelmed by a wave of another influence - the Hallstatt culture, which originated in their ancestral home, bringing with it new techniques of metal processing and a new artistic style. Catalan fields of funerary urns appeared, in all likelihood, no earlier than the beginning of the 7th century BC. BC, but, regardless of the actual date of their foundation, this is the only satisfactory explanation for the spread of Celtic names on the Iberian Peninsula. The creators of the urn fields eventually dispersed to the south and west of Catalonia, and a little later other bearers of the same culture came to the Iberian Peninsula from the western foothills of the Pyrenees and settled along the Atlantic coast. By the 2nd century BC. BC, when the entire region was absorbed by the Roman Empire, they still retained their identity and were not assimilated by the indigenous population of these lands. Thus, Herodotus’ story about the Celts living in the vicinity of Pirena and not far from the Pillars of Hercules received archaeological and philological justification.

The question then arises whether the migrants who brought the urn field culture to Catalonia were Celts, or at least Celtic-speaking, to use modern terminology, or whether their pursuers, the Hallstatt warrior bands, played a major role in the spread of this name. The writer of these lines is inclined to the latter statement, since only with the advent of the Hallstatt warlike society was a mechanism set in motion that could unite under one national name the barbarian tribes from Spain, through Central Europe, to the eastern foothills of the Alps. We must also not forget the mention of Hecataeus about Nirax. But even if we do not take it into account, the Hallstatt cultural province (map 4), formed in the 6th century BC. e., coincides with the habitat of the Celtic peoples, as can be judged by the territory of distribution of Celtic names and from the early written evidence of ancient authors, and coincides more accurately than during the period of Celtic expansion of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. e., in which the linguistically Celtic province lying south of the Pyrenees did not participate.

If the written history of transalpine Europe began a thousand years earlier, the origin of the Celts could be traced not only through the study of the general economic structure and social trends, but also through the example of the fate of individual clans, dynasties and even individuals. But the “human” aspect of the events concerning the proto-Celts still remained behind the scenes, therefore this chapter presents the results of studying this sample.

Map 4. The extent of the Hallstatt cultural province at the beginning of the 5th century BC. e.

lems obtained through “roundabout” routes. However, this approach also has its advantage - it allows you to cover many factors that influenced the process of formation of the Celtic people, and at the same time makes it possible to lift the veil of secrecy in the search for national roots. It seems logical that knowledge of the peculiarities of the formation of similar unions or tribes, which came to the attention of ancient historians and were much better studied, can help in understanding the role and specificity of the unifying element that determined the emergence of the Celtic civilization.

Herodotus gives two interesting descriptions of the steppe peoples of Eastern Europe, whose names he uses in the same ethnological sense as the term "Celts". We are talking about the Cimmerians and Scythians. In both cases, groups of tribes, having different origins and inhabiting different areas, were united, each under the rule of a warlike "princely" tribe. When the “princely” tribe was defeated in battle, the alliance of tribes disintegrated and new groups arose, uniting the heterogeneous population under different names. By the way, Cimmerian horsemen may have something to do with the creation of bronze horse harnesses, which originated from the Caucasian regions and appeared, as mentioned above, at the end of the Bronze Age in the fields of funeral urns. The rule of the Cimmerians was ended by the intervention of the Scythians, who became the eastern neighbors of the inhabitants of the Hallstatt cultural province at the end of the 6th century BC. e. and in turn were overthrown by another nomadic people moving west - the Sarmatians.

As for the Celts, the situation was not so simple, since they led a mostly sedentary lifestyle associated with an agricultural economic system, occupied vast spaces and existed in different geographical conditions. Some parallels can be found during the decline of the Roman Empire, in the 4th and 5th centuries AD. e., - then the dominant clans, or “princely” tribes, united vast territories and their inhabitants under their rule. An example of this is the Goths and Franks. On a smaller scale, this can be illustrated by the origins of the word "Englishman". A very small number of true Angles took part in the Anglo-Saxon invasion, but the immigrants soon adopted the self-name “English”, since it was representatives of the noble family of the Angles who led the resettlement from the shores of Frisia.

In this regard, the following hypothesis can be put forward: the name keltoi, which first became known precisely V This Greek form was adopted by the population of the northern Alpine cultural and linguistic province (as well as the lands that fell within the sphere of its expansion), which was subject to the Hallstatt "princely" tribe, whose representatives were buried in graves containing funeral carts, and whose tribal or family name was this word.

Another widespread name - galatae - probably has a similar origin, but we should not forget that it appeared in the works of ancient authors long after the centers of the Hallstatt culture fell into decline, namely at the time when the Celts, being already the creators La Tène culture, again dispersed over large areas. New circumstances and new forms of intertribal relations arose.

The final paragraphs of this chapter are devoted to Celtic settlements in Britain and Ireland, and to an assessment of the role of Old Irish law and literature as a mirror of the life of Celtic society in all its manifestations.

Migrations to Britain. As mentioned above, the Belgians were the only Celtic or part-Celtic people whose migrations to Britain are directly documented. According to historical and archaeological data, the resettlement took place at the beginning of the 1st century BC. BC, but first it is necessary to return to more distant times and consider the archaeological evidence for the existence of those Celtic-speaking population groups hinted at in the Periplus of Pytheas. Caesar talks about their confrontation with the Belgae, and Tacitus speaks of them as opponents of the Romans. These tribes lived near the ancient Belgian kingdoms on the continent.

Archaeological evidence concerning Britain and Ireland suggests that on these islands at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. BC, when the Northern Alpine cultural province of the urn fields began to take shape on the continent, there was an inert but widespread material culture, based, on the one hand, on the heritage of the bell-shaped beaker and battle-axe cultures and, on the other, on Mesolithic and Western Neolithic sources. The brilliant and varied Early Bronze Age lasted about two to three centuries, reaching its peak in the 15th century BC. BC, then followed a less remarkable period, during which the mixed and perhaps even homogeneous population led a mainly nomadic life as pastoralists. Blacksmithing, however, continued to develop in this environment, and the islanders kept up with the bronzesmiths who created the northern continental tradition.

The first sign known to archeology of the influence of the North Alpine cultural province of the fields of funerary urns was the appearance of bronze swords of the Middle Rhine type in the area of ​​the Thames estuary. Most likely, they were brought to the islands by new adventurers, and not by foreign merchants. The swords can be dated back to the 10th century BC. e. Around the same time, bronze axes came into widespread use on the two islands, which were a more suitable item of trade. The appearance of axes - the most useful bronze tools in the economy - and the development of sheet metal processing techniques (the spread of both throughout transalpine Europe was made possible thanks to intensive ore mining with the beginning of the era of funerary urn fields) opened up new opportunities for the islanders and gave impetus to the development of trade metal. Local artisans could now satisfy the demands and needs new era, so they stopped bringing weapons from the continent, at least in large quantities.

As a result of the expansion of the urn field province, the first settlers appeared in southern Britain - refugees from northern France, judging by pottery made in the style of the French Middle Bronze Age and discovered in Kent. A more serious and large-scale wave of immigration poured into the island at the beginning of the 8th century BC. e. New settlers occupied lands rich in chalk deposits in the south of England; material evidence of their presence is also found in Sussex, Dorset and Wiltshire. There is no need to analyze in detail the differences between archaeological cultures in this book - what is important for us is that these immigrants had some general characteristics. Firstly, they brought with them the economic way of settled agriculture (some of their settlements and field cultivation systems have survived to this day). This, as shown above, is one of the characteristic features of the culture of the urn fields, alien to the inhabitants of Western and Northern Europe in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Secondly, their funeral ritual included cremation and burial of ashes in urns (however, in this regard, the ancient inhabitants of the island did not learn anything new from them, since the ritual of corpse burning, which grew out of the late Neolithic ritual, widely known in Britain and Ireland, was practiced there long before the arrival of settlers). Thirdly, the new ceramic tradition that spread to England belonged, as in the first case, to the culture of the Middle Bronze Age rather than to the culture of the urn fields. All this confirms the earlier conclusion about the comprehensive nature of the expansion of the urn field culture, which spread north of the Rhine, covered France and was adopted by the bearers of more ancient cultures. The true ceramic style of the urn field culture appeared in England only with the first colonists who came from the central regions of the North Alpine province. Their settlement area on the island was limited to the southern coast, and the ceramic style was soon adopted by the local population. Among the last migrants were apparently inhabitants from the shores of the Swiss lakes, fleeing the invasion of Hallstatt warriors who invaded the region in the 7th century BC. e.

The settlers - presumably Celtic or Celticized - discussed above, apparently moved not too far beyond the boundaries of their original range - lands rich in Cretaceous deposits. The territories to the north and west, which had a harsher climate, were occupied by other migrants - warriors armed with swords and using Hallstatt-type horse harnesses. Almost nothing is known about them. Did they travel in entire communities, with women who owned household crafts, or did they travel to the islands in small detachments in search of adventure? The latter seems more likely, since in Britain and Ireland archaeologists everywhere find objects that can be called military jewelry of the Hallstatt type, but nowhere have they been found associated with their owners the remains of everyday material culture inherent in their continental relatives. This is definitely controversial issue, and the answer is not so simple. Leading the slow process of migration and possessing greater mobility than ordinary settlers, Hallstatt warriors had the opportunity to create detachments of assistants, which included representatives of the peoples they conquered. Thus, migrants could bring to Britain and Ireland not only weapons and jewelry, but also new principles social organization.

So, if the dating of the “Massaliot Perip-la” is the beginning or middle of the 6th century BC. e. - it is true that in the contemporary era of its author, the southern coastal lands of Albion were inhabited by numerous immigrants of the late Bronze Age, who submitted, perhaps, to those same Hallstatt warlike leaders who carried long bronze or iron swords and put harnesses and jewelry on their horses - riding or draft , made in Central European style. During the time of Pytheas, the name pretani became widespread in Albion. What is the reason for this, and can archeology help resolve this issue?

The answer must be sought in the events associated With beginning of the 5th century BC e., - then colonists from the Netherlands and Northern France appeared in Southern and Eastern Britain, before whom the previous settlers receded into the background in terms of numbers and level of economic development. The new wave of immigrants did not interfere with the existence of a local, obsolete material culture of the Hallstatt type, but were themselves descendants of the inhabitants of the northern Alpine cultural province of the urn fields, which had scattered from the Lower Rhine to Champagne and the Seine Valley.

For clarity, we can designate the culture of these last settlers with the archaeological term “British Iron Age A”, and compare its bearers in historical significance with the Anglo-Saxons of the post-Roman period. They subjugated all local residents, including their migrant predecessors, smoothing out the differences between population groups. The population of the island at that time should have increased significantly - also because the appearance of new iron tools made new lands available for cultivation, and therefore for habitation.

The bearers of the Iron Age A culture, who first occupied the southern and eastern coastal territories, then settled in areas with dry fertile soils, and later in the harsh lands of the Midlands bordering Wales, moving inland to the Pennines. This expansion lasted for about two centuries, and despite the continued influx of immigrants from the continent, the bearers of the Iron Age A culture formed the majority of the population of Britain before the Roman invasion. What happened during that period in the lands north of the Cheviot Mountains is unknown. It seems that the carriers of the Middle Bronze Age culture, who were lagging behind in development and mastered metal tools of the Late Bronze Age, were influenced only by the Hallstatt wanderers. Tribes belonging to the Iron Age A culture settled in the southern part of Scotland only at the dawn of the Christian era with the beginning of the Belgo-Roman clashes.

There is no doubt that the bearers of the Iron Age A culture were Celts, and it is very likely that some, if not all, of them called themselves pretani or preteni - pretensions or claims. At the end of the Hallstatt era (5th century BC), the redistribution of power and property on the continent became one of the reasons for the emergence of new trends in the development of material culture and the emergence of remarkable decorative art. Archaeologists know this phenomenon under the names “La Tène culture” and “La Tène artistic style.” At its origins stood the same population groups and, apparently, the same ruling aristocratic clans. Among the rulers, the main place was occupied by the leaders, whose rich burials containing funeral chariots were discovered in the Middle Rhine and Champagne. It was probably they who led the above-mentioned great expansion of the Celtic tribes into the east of Europe, into Italy and the Balkans, and it was partly through their fault that the bearers of the Hallstatt tradition and Iron Age A culture were forced to seek refuge in Britain. The La Tène conquerors themselves landed on the island only in the middle of the 3rd century BC. e., occupying mainly South coast, and in particular Sussex. The new settlers were probably not numerous, but it can be assumed that entire families or certain social entities were transported from the continent, since they left behind not only weapons, but also household utensils, indicating that they were not alien to household crafts. The culture these people brought to Britain is called "British Iron Age B", sometimes referred to as "Marne culture", since their ancestral home can be roughly correlated with the modern French department of the Marne. However, it is very likely that with this wave of migration, iron masters, and perhaps even leaders, from the Middle Rhine regions arrived in Britain. It does not appear that the Marne tribes expelled the local inhabitants of the island from their lands, most likely they forced them to submit to their rule or formed independent enclaves. In the north they settled the Yorkshire moors and may have occupied the south-western reaches of Scotland. The tribal nobility of Iron Age B acquired new possessions and patronized the island school of La Tène art. This conclusion can be drawn from the fact that, thanks to her position as the dominant elite, she had the means to strengthen the Celtic character of the culture of the island's population, at least in the lands south of the Cheviot Mountains. In the southwest and around Bristol Bay, La Tène settlers appeared in the 3rd or 2nd centuries BC. e., which, apparently, was the result of the development of Cornish trade, and remained there until the time of Caesar, when a wave of refugees spilled onto their lands.

The final phase of colonization of Britain before the Roman invasion began with the emergence of Belgian settlements in the southeast of the island. This event has a lot of archaeological evidence, and it was covered by Caesar himself. The colonists came from the Belgian union of tribes that occupied the territories between the Rhine, Seine and Marne. Some of these tribes, mainly those who lived on the coast, were primitive bearers of the mixed culture of the urn fields and Hallstatt, and they came from the regions beyond the Rhine or were driven from there. The remaining tribes traced their origins to the carriers of the La Tène culture who lived in Champagne, and it was their representatives who moved to Britain.

The life of the Belgian settlers in Britain will be described in more detail in the next chapter, but here it is enough to mention that in terms of their linguistic affiliation and social organization they can be considered Celts and that it was they who became the core of local resistance to the Romans, first on the lands of their own kingdoms, then, having been defeated and being expelled - in the west and north. It seems very likely that a genuine Belgian dynastic tradition survived in Wales during the Roman occupation and was revived by the Britons in the Middle Ages.

Celts in Ireland. The Celtic language and literature preserved in Ireland from ancient times provide a wealth of material for research, but the body of archaeological evidence concerning this island is far from complete.

Since the Early Bronze Age, Ireland has played important role in the production of metal products, and the island bronze craftsmen did not hesitate to master new casting techniques and more advanced forms of products. However, no indications were found of the resettlement of foreigners to Ireland who could become their teachers. Perhaps this first happened in the 6th century BC. e., to which a large number of bronze and ceramic objects are dated, found over vast territories - Mount Antrim and Down in the north, Westmeath and Roscommon in the center, Clare and Limerick in the southwest - and testifying to the appearance in Ireland of settlers who were carriers of one from the variants of Hallstatt material culture. As in the case of Britain, one might suspect Hallstatt adventurers, but fairly clear patterns in pottery production point to more cohesive immigration groups. These people could be representatives of the surplus population of the Iron Age A culture who emigrated from Britain, however, on the basis of some archaeological facts - and the theory mentioned above comes up again - we can conclude that there was an early wave of migration from the Lower Rhine regions, which reached Ireland through Scotland or along the Scottish coast. At least one spot on the map of the north-east coast of Scotland is proof of this. It is also possible that the cranno-gee-like lakeside settlements concentrated mainly on the Upper Shannon were modeled on the villages of the Western Alpine zone.

The next key point in archaeological research in Ireland is associated with the wonderful metalwork in the La Tène style. First of all, these are engraved bronze scabbards for iron swords, bronze bridles with decorative patterns and bronze horns. In terms of style, the oldest of these things are usually dated from the 1st century BC. e., and their prototypes are considered to be products dating back to the era of the British Iron Age B. However, at present the question remains open as to whether these works of La Tène craft art are the work of itinerant craftsmen who previously worked for the “Galshat” leaders, or indicate the arrival of new gentlemen in Ireland, who brought with them their own craftsmen. Some philological evidence can be interpreted in favor of the latter, but a definitive conclusion is difficult to draw. At least one circumstance is beyond doubt: if the metal products in question actually saw the light of day no earlier than the 1st century BC. e., then their creators could only arrive on the island from Britain, namely from Yorkshire or from South-West Scotland; refugees or other migrants from Gaul were not able to create these elegant little things, since La Tène art on the continent had already fallen into decay by that time .

Relocation to Ireland large number Gallic exiles fleeing Roman rule have not been confirmed archaeologically, but some indications of this set are contained in ancient Irish literature, confirmation can also be found in the geographer Ptolemy, who recorded in the 2nd century AD. e. names of several Celtic tribes. The same applies to the arrival of the Britons on the island, which should have taken place in the 1st century AD. e. after the final conquest of southern Britain by the Romans under Claudius.

At the present stage of scientific development, it seems impossible to assess the true contribution of settlers from Gaul and Britain to the culture of Ireland and their impact on the life of the local population. The question remains whether they brought to Ireland the Celtic social order and culture that took root on the island and flourished in the 5th century AD. e., when Christian missionaries arrived there, or their activities only contributed to the further development of Celtic Ireland, at the cradle of which stood the “Halstatt” leaders of the 6th century BC. e. Linguistics is not able to help in resolving this problem, since it relies on late documentary evidence, but a brief overview of the features of the Irish language and an assessment of the place it occupies in philological science seems useful.

The language of Old Irish literature is considered the predecessor of modern Gaelic and belongs to that branch of the Celtic language family, which is usually called Q-Celtic and which contains more archaic elements than the R-Celtic branch, which includes Gaulish, Brythonic and Welsh. In Caesar's time, and perhaps long before him, R-Celtic dialects dominated the continent and Britain, but Q-Celtic elements can still be traced in names throughout Gaul and Spain, as well as in the less than complete epigraphic material relating to the Roman era. Philologists disagree about how long ago the division of the Celtic language into two branches occurred and whether the p- and q-Celts understood each other before Latin had a strong influence on the Gaulish and Brythonic languages.

Regardless of the answer to these questions, the fact remains that a language and literature, unclouded by the influence of the Roman Empire and directly related to the ancient Celts, survived only in Ireland.

Retrospectively tracing the path of Irish traditional knowledge and literature from the Middle Ages to protohistorical times is an important, complex task and undeservedly neglected by scientists. The last lines of this chapter will be devoted to brief overview circumstances against the background and through which certain elements of the spiritual culture of the ancient Celts were preserved for posterity.

If in the early Teutonic kingdoms of post-Roman Europe christian church If only a weak, rudimentary system of social order, administration and justice was opposed, then in Ireland the missionaries had to face a highly organized society of learned men, among whom were guardians of everyday laws, masters of sacred arts, creators of heroic tales and keepers of genealogies. Over time, paganism was eradicated, but traditional knowledge continued to be transmitted orally - such schools existed side by side with monasteries. In the 7th century, if not earlier, monks appeared who had a special status: these comprehensively educated Christians were, among other things, also bearers of ancient Celtic wisdom. As a result, the first records of oral traditions in the local language saw the light, and Irish written literature was born - the oldest in Europe after Greek and Latin. The tradition of a reverent attitude towards knowledge and, accordingly, the utmost accuracy of its oral transmission was adopted by those who first wrote down this knowledge, as well as by their followers, who copied ancient manuscripts over the centuries. Thus, the language and form of the texts first recorded in VII or VIII centuries, were adequately reflected in manuscripts of the 15th or 16th centuries, which may contain only very minor inaccuracies. The oldest extant examples of written Irish are found in church books of the 8th and 9th centuries, where the Latin text is accompanied by explanations and sometimes other comments in the native language of the monks who worked on them. These church books, which have a fairly precise dating, play an important role as a chronological milestone, allowing the language of Irish treatises preserved in later copies to be correlated with the time scale.

It should be noted that the texts that have survived to this day represent only part of a whole complex of knowledge that existed in oral form, say, in the 8th century AD. BC, and some of the earliest manuscripts containing essential information, as we know, are irretrievably lost.

Systematic study of the Old Irish language and literature has only been carried out for the last hundred years and is, in a certain sense, at a preparatory stage. The content of legal treatises, epic and mythological legends sheds light on the life of Ireland in prehistoric times, clarifies many of the comments of ancient authors regarding the continental Celts and provides invaluable material for the comparative analysis of Indo-European social institutions, mythologies and languages. Celtic Ireland was the western stronghold of the Indo-European cultural tradition, Aryan Northern India completed its sphere of influence in the east. Separated by vast spaces, the Celts and Aryans preserved this tradition for a long time, long after its creators, their common ancestors, had sunk into oblivion.

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By the middle of the 1st millennium BC, Celtic tribes inhabited the basins of the Rhine, Seine, Loire and the upper Danube. This territory was later called Gaul by the Romans. During the 6th–3rd centuries, the Celts occupied the lands of modern Spain, Britain, Northern Italy, Southern Germany, the Czech Republic, parts of Hungary and Transylvania.

There were isolated Celtic settlements to the south and east of these territories in the Illyrian and Thracian regions. In the 3rd century BC. e. The Celts undertook an unsuccessful campaign in Macedonia and Greece, as well as in Asia Minor, where part of the Celts settled and subsequently became known as the Galatians.

In some countries, the Celts mixed with the local population and created a new, mixed culture, such as the Celtiberian culture in Spain. In other areas the local population was quickly Celticized, such as the Ligurians of the south of France, and minor traces of their language and culture survive only in a few place names and vestiges of religious beliefs.

There are almost no written sources about the early period of the history of the Celts. They were first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus, then by Herodotus, who reported on Celtic settlements in Spain and on the Danube. Titus Livy testifies to the Celts' campaign against Italy during the reign of the Roman king Tarquinius Priscus in the 6th century BC. e.

Celtic warriors. Relief frieze from Chivito Alba. III century BC e. Terracotta.

In 390, one of the Celtic tribes raided Rome. At the beginning of the 4th century, the Celts offered the tyrant of Sicily Dionysius I an alliance against Locris and Croton, with whom he was then at war. Later they appeared in his army as mercenaries. In 335, the Celtic tribes that lived along the shores of the Adriatic Sea sent their representatives to Alexander the Great.

These scant written data are supplemented by archaeological materials. The spread of the so-called La Tène culture created by them is associated with the Celts. The name comes from the Bay of La Tène on Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where a fortification and a large number of characteristic Celtic weapons were discovered.

Monuments of the La Tène culture, which in the middle of the 6th century BC. e. replaced by Hallstatt, allow us to trace the gradual development of the Celtic tribes and the history of their penetration into various regions of Europe.

At the first stage of its development, in the middle of the 6th - end of the 5th century, La Tène culture was spread from France to the Czech Republic. A large number of swords, daggers, helmets, bronze and gold jewelry indicates that even then Celtic craft had reached a high level.

Art was also at a high level, as evidenced, for example, by artistically decorated dishes. At the same time, Greek things appeared in burials, which penetrated to the Celts through Massalia along the Rhone and Saone rivers. Greek art had a noticeable influence on Celtic art, although local craftsmen did not blindly follow Greek models, but reworked them, adapting them to their tastes and traditions.

In the 5th–3rd centuries, in connection with the settlement of the Celts, the La Tène culture gradually spread to other regions of Europe. The products of Celtic artisans are becoming more and more improved. The Greek influence is felt less and less. In the west, enamel decorations typical of the Celts appear. Ceramics made on a potter's wheel are becoming widespread.

Celtic agriculture reaches a high level. It was the Celts who invented the heavy plow with a cutter. This plow could plow the ground to a much greater depth than the light plow that was used at that time by the Italics and Greeks. In agriculture, the Celts used a three-field system, which ensured good harvests. In Italy they willingly bought flour from the Celtic regions.

Moving into new areas, the Celts distributed lands to pagas - tribes or clans. In Britain, which had little connection with the outside world, ancestral tribal ownership of land persisted for a long time.

On the continent, where the Celts entered into trade relations with Greek and Italian merchants, private ownership of land gradually arose. Tribal community was replaced by rural ones, and from among the community members the nobility stood out, which managed to seize more land.

Weapons and household items from the burial grounds of the La Tène culture (Middle Moravia).

From this nobility the Celtic cavalry was formed, which constituted the main force of the army. The cavalry replaced the war chariots that had previously been common among the Celts, which survived only in Britain.

The high skill of the Celts in fortification is evidenced by the remains of their fortifications - huge walls of stone blocks held together by oak beams. These so-called Gallic walls were later borrowed by other peoples.

By the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd century, trade among the continental Celts had reached such a level that they began to mint their own gold and silver coins, similar to those of Massalia, Rhodes and Rome, as well as Macedonian ones. At first, the coin appeared among tribes that were closely associated with the policies of the Greek and Roman world, but by the 1st century, more distant tribes, including the tribes of Britain, began to mint it.

The development of trade led to the decomposition of primitive communal relations, which occurred especially quickly among tribes in direct contact with the ancient world. In the 2nd century, the expansion of the Celts ceased. One of the reasons is the meeting with such strong opponents as the Germans, who were advancing to the Rhine, and the Romans, who in 121 captured southern, so-called Narbonne, Gaul and increasingly asserted their influence and dominance in the Danube regions.

Last thing major movement Celtic tribes - the arrival from the Trans-Rhine regions of the Belgian tribe, which established itself in the north of Gaul and in some Rhine regions of Germany. By the end of the 2nd century BC. e. The Celts had already reached the last stage of the decomposition of the primitive communal system. The tribal nobility owned vast lands and slaves who were used as servants.

Many tribal community members became dependent on the nobility and were forced to cultivate their lands, paying a certain fee, as well as join squads and fight for their leaders. By this time, individual pagi had already united into more or less large tribal communities. The most significant of them were the communities of the Aedui and Erverni.

Communities subjugated less powerful tribes, which became dependent on them. Cities began to emerge, which were centers of craft and trade, and in some cases, political centers. Cities were usually well fortified.

Most Celtic tribes developed a semblance of an aristocratic republic, somewhat similar to the early Roman Republic. The former tribal leaders, whom ancient authors called kings, were expelled. They were replaced by a council of the aristocracy and magistrates chosen from among them - the so-called vergobrets. The main task of the Vergobrets was the introduction of the court.

Often, individual representatives of the nobility tried to seize sole power. They were supported by the squad and the people, who hoped that they would limit the power of the landowners who oppressed them. But such attempts were usually quickly suppressed.

Along with the nobility, whom the Romans called horsemen, the priesthood, the Druids, also played a major role. They were organized into a corporation headed by an Archdruid, exempt from military service and taxes, and revered as the guardians of divine wisdom and some, however, rather meager knowledge. Representatives of the aristocracy who mastered their teachings were accepted among the Druids.

The Druids gathered annually and held court. The decisions of this court were strictly binding on all Gauls. The Druids forbade the disobedient to participate in religious ceremonies, which separated them from society.

The teachings of the Druids were secret and taught orally. It took up to 20 years to master it. Little is known about its contents. Apparently, the basis of the Druid teachings was the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul or the transmigration of souls and the idea of ​​the end of the world, which would be destroyed by fire and water. It is difficult to determine how much this teaching influenced the Celtic religion, about which very little is also known. Along with the cult of the spirits of the forest, mountains, rivers, streams, etc., the cult of the gods of the sun, thunder of war, life and death, crafts, eloquence, etc. also developed. Human sacrifices were made to some of these gods.

Not all Celtic tribes were at the same stage of development. The northern tribes more distant from Italy, in particular the Belgians, still lived in a primitive communal system, just like the British Celts. Attempts at Roman penetration were met with sharp rebuff here. On the contrary, the tribes of Southern Gaul, especially the Aedui, were already on the verge of transition to a class society and state. The local nobility, in the fight against their fellow tribesmen and other tribes, sought the help of Rome, which subsequently facilitated the conquest of Gaul and its transformation into a Roman province.

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II. Celts Celts are tribes of Indo-European origin: Helvetians, Belgians, Sequani, Lingons, Aedui, Bituringi, Arverni, Allobroges, Senones, Treveri, Bellovaci. The Celts reached their greatest power in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The priests enjoyed great influence among the Celts -

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Celts The ancient Celts believed that war was a very feminine matter. A medieval Irish text recalling distant pagan times reads: “The work which the best of women had to do was to go to battle and the battlefields, to take part in

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