Wikigi 9th century were built on the principle of free association of units. The basis military force amounted to " lead" - a personal squad of a king or leader, the size of which depended on the wealth and position of its leader.

The Lida warriors were a partnership, or "felag", united solely by mutual loyalty. Discipline was maintained mainly by the fear of each warrior to cover himself with shame if he abandoned his comrades in the thick of battle. Warriors were rewarded for their loyalty with shares in the loot and could give their allegiance to another leader if their own failed in battle. The Viking army was essentially a collection of leaders who came together to common purpose, and when the campaign was over, it simply broke up into its constituent partnerships, which settled in a new place, returned home, or joined another army somewhere else. Because of their composite structure, Viking armies often had unified command, but a leader with an established reputation, like Hastein, could sometimes exercise sole leadership. Since chroniclers of the time usually described the size of the Viking army in terms of the number of ships that arrived, it is unknown how large they actually were. The crew of the 9th century Gokstad ship, found in Norway, amounted to at least thirty-three warriors. If this was a common occurrence, then the fleet of eighty ships that Hastein brought to England in 892, would have carried an army of more than two thousand six hundred soldiers - a large army for that time.

As Viking armies marched, they built forts to use as bases for raiding and protecting ships, plunder, and the women and children who sometimes accompanied them. Although women did not fight, they prepared food and cared for the wounded. A favorite Viking tactic in battle was to create a protective shield wall, or "skjaldborg" (shield fortress), to meet an enemy attack. The attack commonly used a wedge-shaped formation, the "svinfilkya" (pig's snout), to try to break through the enemy's shield wall. The Vikings' main military advantage lay not in superior weapons, tactics or organization - most northern Europeans fought their wars this way at the time - but in their mobility, which allowed them to always stay one step ahead of the defenders. Their fast ships had a draft of only 18 inches and were ideal for lightning raids on coastal settlements or transporting armies along rivers. On land, the Vikings moved as mounted infantry, quickly covering long distances on commandeered horses, but fought on foot. Usually, by the time local troops gathered in sufficient numbers, the Vikings were already far away with their booty. Once the enemy found a way to limit their mobility, even experienced commanders like Hastein could no longer achieve much success.

Initially, the Vikings' successes were attributed to the element of surprise. The Vikings landed on the seashore or climbed upstream under cover of darkness or taking advantage of bad weather. There have not been any standing armies in Western Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire. The Frisians, Franks and Anglo-Saxons could do nothing against this hit-and-run tactic, since gathering an army and moving it to the scene could take weeks. As a result, the Vikings were doomed to success. Monasteries were a particularly tasty morsel for the Vikings. possessed significant wealth. which were almost unguarded.

The shield wall was the main main formation of the Vikings, the Vikings in the front rank cut down the enemy with axes and swords, and their comrades from the second rank struck the enemy with spears. During the offensive, the warriors beat the rims with swords, making a roar that demoralized the enemy. Viking shields were usually painted in simple colors with geometric patterns. Red shields were the most common, followed by yellow, black, white, green and blue.

At first, the raids were carried out by several people sailing on one or two ships. But as they realized their success, the Vikings began to gather larger and larger armies. With the emergence of united kingdoms in Norway and Denmark, the Vikings were able to gather significant forces that were able to hold the occupied territory. So. The Vikings managed to take York in 866 and take possession of all of northeastern England.

From 850, Danish Vikings began to stay in England for the winter, collecting danegeld. Kent paid tribute in 865, but this did not save him from further raids. After 870 the Vikings controlled large areas of central England from coast to coast. These lands, which came under Danish rule, were called Danelaw lands. where Danish law applies. It took a generation before the Anglo-Saxon rulers succeeded in liberating their ancestral lands.

Conflicts between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings often resulted in open battles. For example, in 937 near Brunaburg or in 991 near Maldon. The Vikings showed that they could not only raid coastal areas, but also fight regular battles on land. Brunaburg is of particular interest. since Vikings participated in this battle on both sides. The Anglo-Saxon army, reinforced by Danish mercenaries, engaged Norwegian rebels from Ireland and the east of the Danelaw.

Battles in western and northern Europe were usually fought on foot. The knightly cavalry characteristic of the Middle Ages became widespread only in the 11th century, although the Franks had good cavalry throughout history. In Byzantium and eastern Europe. on the contrary, cavalry constituted the most important part of the army. The Vikings saw the horse only as a means of transport. The Vikings were repeatedly defeated. For example, in 881 they lost to the Franks at Sokur, and in 972 they were defeated by the Byzantines at Silistra due to the superiority of the enemy in cavalry. But there are no rules without exceptions: in 888 the Vikings themselves used cavalry at Monfoco in France, and in 968 the Varangian cavalry was noted at the battle of Solkoga in Ireland.

Sometimes the time and place of the battle were determined in advance, and the battlefield itself was limited by a hazel fence. It was considered a disgrace to break the agreement and leave the battlefield. It was also considered dishonest to continue to ravage an area after the enemy had accepted the challenge and the battlefield had been chosen. The Anglo-Saxons often used this custom to gather forces.

Shield wall

The main Viking formation was the shield wall (skaldborg). The warriors stood in a line shoulder to shoulder, holding their shields so that they touched and even partially overlapped each other. However, the formation could not be too dense, since each warrior needed space to freely swing a sword or ax.

Behind the line of shields stood spearmen and warriors with long axes, who struck and stabbed over the shoulders of the front rank. Terrain conditions mattered. The side that took a position higher on the slope received a tangible advantage. If the size of the army allowed, several walls of shields were formed, located one after the other.

Archers and javelin throwers began to act even before the start of hand-to-hand combat. By shooting they tried to soften the enemy's formation. creating weak areas in its shield wall. After the opponents converged, felling began, which continued until those holes were reached. until one of the sides broke through the enemy’s formation, a clip attack (svynfylking) followed in this area. in which the first rank was formed by two warriors, the second by three, the third by five, etc. The warriors on the flanks of the wedge kept their shields covered, and the warriors from the middle of the formation struck with spears.

If the shield wall could be broken through, the formation would crumble and chaos would reign on the battlefield. However, the leader of the losing side could show his will and charisma, gather his soldiers and regroup them, or throw a reserve into battle. In the early Viking armies there were three types of warriors: ordinary warriors from the common people, wealthy hersirs, and leaders with their own squads. The main goal the battle was the commander of the enemy army. If he died, then all the other warriors were freed from the oath of allegiance taken to him. The commoners, who made up the bulk of the army, preferred to leave the battlefield, while the elite considered it a shame to lose, preferring to fight to the last drop of blood.

The dead and wounded on the battlefield were robbed by the victors. Sometimes the looting began even during the battle. First of all, they looked for money and jewelry, and they always took off their weapons and armor. The Bayeux tapestry shows the dead being stripped naked. This poor warrior first wants to profit from a pair of good boots.

A free peasant, mobilized against his will into the militia (leding). His clothing and weapons are typical of a poor warrior. For protection, he has only a shield, which he carries slung on a belt behind his back. His weapons consist of a spear and several darts. The expression on the militiaman’s face is as if he is reading passages from “Havamala” - a collection of Varangian sayings: “It is better to be alive than dead, only the living own wealth. I saw the rich man’s house burning, but death was behind the doors.”

Battles at sea

The Vikings fought sea battles on the same principle as land battles. Each side connected most ships with ropes, forming a platform on which the battle unfolded with the construction of a wall of shields. The attackers tried to take control of the defending platform.

The battles of Hafrsfjord in 872, Svöldr in 1000 and Nissa in 1062 took place according to this scenario. The attackers took ship after ship, disconnecting them from the platform. Both fleets kept some ships free to allow maneuver. The free ships operated on the flanks, showering the enemy with a hail of arrows, stones and spears. If the defenders managed to kill the enemy rowers or break the oars, the attack often bogged down due to the impossibility of maneuvering. But in general, the elements of a real sea battle with maneuver, rams, gaining wind and the use of catapults were completely unknown to the Vikings. Most battles took place in calm coastal waters or estuaries, where there was no room for tactics.

Before embarking on hand-to-hand combat, both sides tried to soften the enemy's formation, showering him with arrows and darts. In the images of that time, warriors are often found carrying, in addition to a spear, several more shorter darts, which they hold with their left hand.

If the Vikings were hit by enemy arrows or javelins, they took cover behind their cones, as shown here. Similar tactics were applicable both on land and at sea. If enough warriors gathered, they could cover themselves with shields in front and above. In the picture you can see various patterns on the shields.

The first raids were carried out by local leaders who wanted to get spoils abroad. The ship was crewed by relatives or members of the same clan, possibly neighbors. Each Viking equipped himself for the campaign, each participant received his share of the spoils. Often the Vikings were engaged not only in robbery, but also in trade, selling the loot if possible. The detachment had a recognized leader, but the key points of the campaign were always discussed at general council squad. Among the participants in the raids there could have been teenagers aged 12-15 years. For the boys, this was an opportunity to study military affairs in practice and learn from the experience of their elders.

After the emergence of kingdoms on the territory of Norway and Denmark, the structure of the Varangian armies also changed. A militia system (leding) was introduced on the territory of the Scandinavian states. This system provided that each free landowner was obliged to contribute a certain number of soldiers, equipment, weapons and ships to the army, depending on the size of his property. Later, instead of a tax in kind, a cash tax was introduced; professional soldiers were hired with the money collected. At the head of the army was the king. The king had his guard (bird) at his disposal. Each member of the guard took an oath of personal allegiance to the king.

Fortifications

The Vikings knew how to build fortifications. Fortifications are known at Firkat, Aggersborg, Trelleborg and Nonnebakken, not to mention the Daneverk line. Daneverk was an imposing structure in the south of Jutland in the form of a wood-and-earth embankment about 2 m high and 12 m wide. The embankment was successfully applied to the terrain and provided sufficient protection against the raids of the Slavs and Germans. The construction of the line began in 737 and ended in 968. With a total length of 30 km, Daneverk has only one gate through which the road to Viborg went. In the Daneverk area lay the trading city of Haitaby. In 974, the Germans, under the leadership of Emperor Otto II, managed to capture a large part of southern Denmark. including Daneverk. The Vikings managed to regain what they had lost in 983.

The four fortresses mentioned above were built in the second half of the 10th century. They were similar in design, but differed in size. Each fortress was a closed line of walls with a moat. Two main streets divided the interior of the fortress into four sectors. At Trelleborg, Fyrkat and Nonnebakken there were 16 large buildings, forming four symmetrical groups. Aggersborg had twice the diameter and contained twice as many buildings. Outside, various outbuildings and houses adjoined the walls of the fortress; their location was different for each fortress. The main purpose of these fortresses was to protect the local population and provide safe housing for representatives of the Danish king. In addition, the fortresses served as bases in which soldiers were collected and trained for upcoming operations.

Viking mercenaries

In the IX-X centuries. Brotherhoods of mercenaries (vikinge-lag) appeared in Scandinavia. Members of the fraternity lived together and followed a certain code of conduct. These experienced fighters did not act on their own behalf, but entered the service as mercenaries. The most famous brotherhood of Jomsvikings (Jomsvikinge-lag), which operated in the fortified camp and harbor of Jomsburg - modern Vollinda at the mouth of the Oder. Here in the 980s Harald Bluetooth was in exile. The Jomsvikings were led by Earl Sigvald, a nobleman from Scania. Sigvald gained great popularity thanks to minstrel songs, as well as mentions in descriptions of many battles.

Formation and supply of the Viking army

The supply and equipment of the Viking army of the 8th century was significantly different from the supply and equipment of the end of the period described. At the beginning of the Viking Age, decentralized power could not raise a large army without the assistance of local rulers, among whom the most powerful was the hersir. The regional army was assembled and equipped directly in the territory where the soldiers lived. Later laws were issued that deal in detail with territorial principle defense of Norway are a later modification of this rule. Each clan and each tribe contributed to the formation of the army. But the main responsibility for its creation lay with local landowners, who were key public figures.

It turns out that the semi-legendary Ragnar Lothbrok, who was the commander-in-chief of the first large Viking army to invade England, laid claim to the royal title. Most likely, as was customary in the ancient clan system, real power belonged to the entire Lodbrok clan. There is evidence that the sons of Lodbrok conquered the northern kingdoms that were part of the alliance of the seven kingdoms of the Angles and Saxons. So they avenged the death of their father, who was put to death in Northumbria. Warriors " great army"were bound by bonds of mutual fidelity. Small units were given relative freedom - they carried out small military operations on their own. One of Lodbrok's sons was killed in 878 during a raid on Devon, the purpose of which was to seize land for settlements or to obtain food and plunder property. In 876, Halfdan divided the kingdom of Northumbria among his retainers.

At that time, there were two main systems of material supply for the army. In the political vacuum that arose in Northumbria, the raiders established control over the lands of the kingdom and the agricultural work being carried out on them. Scandinavian kings were the rulers of York with some interruptions until the 10th century. An army was recruited and equipped in this region, sometimes receiving support from the Vikings who lived overseas. In the raid on Devon in 878, the Vikings used the same tactic as in the surprise attack on Lindesfarne in 793: a lightning landing on an unguarded coast. The raiders grabbed what they needed and moved on. Unfortunately for their commander, Hubba Lodbrokson, the nature of the defense had changed. The King of Wessex did not have enough strong army, so the local rulers decided to repel Khubba's attack without the help of the central government.

Recruitment of warriors for the Viking army

The personal qualities and combat skills of an ordinary Viking warrior changed during the transition from a regional method of recruiting and supplying an army to a more complex state system. The kings began to play more important role when carrying out large-scale events. One of the largest ships ever built by the Scandinavians was the ship " Long serpent", projected and financed by Olaf Trygvason. The material and technical supply of a new type of army, capable of coordinated interaction, was based on the principles of a “distributive economy.” Thus, Trygvason, before the Battle of Svolda, himself issues swords to the soldiers of his personal guard. At that time, a good military leader was considered the one who supplied his warriors with the weapons necessary for battle.

The Jomsvikings were among the first participants in the profitable enterprise of the late 10th and early 11th centuries. to remove silver money from circulation by setting extortionate prices. Thorkel the Tall did not interfere with the exchange process until the flow of silver flowing into the hands of his people, which was essentially their cash content, did not stop. In that era, when the weight and quality of silver were most taken into account, a step was taken towards the creation of a monetary circulation based on trust, which completely did not justify itself. The capabilities of such an immature economy, however, were enough to support units of professional Jomsviking warriors, who could now devote all their time to preparing for and participating in military operations.

The problem of supply in the Viking army was solved relatively simply. If they were unable to obtain equipment in their homeland, they plundered the lands they had captured, extorting money directly from the official authorities. Food was most likely not transported on carts. The examples of wheeled transport from Scandinavia that have come down to us have a ceremonial purpose. In addition, their design is such that they could hardly withstand long-term operation in the almost complete off-road conditions of that time. On the other hand, Icelandic written sources contain numerous evidence of the use of pack horses for the transport of goods.

Vikings in action: Battle of Harsfjord, 872

Written evidence of this battle can only be found in Icelandic literature. The records appear to have been made two centuries after the events. However, the various sagas that tell of this battle converge in general outline and even some details. The significance of the Battle of Huxfjord for Icelandic history lies in the fact that it served as the impetus for the mass emigration that followed its unfavorable outcome. It was attended by the army of Harald Harfarga, who dreamed of being the only king of Norway, as well as the army of a voluntary union of landowners from the north and west of the country, belonging to various social classes.

Harald Harfargi was the son of Halfdan the Black. He inherited from his father the small kingdom of Vestfold, through whose lands ran important trade routes that crossed the southern part of Norway. Kaupang was the main entrepot for this region. The presence of vast fertile lands around Vik gave Harald great advantages over his rivals. When he began to eliminate the petty rulers of Norway, he already had Aplandia, Trondelag, Naumdale, Halogalandria, Myra and Raumsdale under his control. If you believe the saga of Egil Skalamgrimson, many inhabitants were expelled by Harald, who stubbornly sought sole power. Citizens who had weight in society rebelled, defending their right to independent land ownership. They were supported by King Sulki of Rogland, who managed to maintain independence. The saga of Grettir the Strong says that Germund Svatskin, lord of Hiordaland, one of the remaining independent kingdoms, was absent overseas. The rebels were joined by Kiotvi the Rich and Thorir Longbeard, the deposed king of Adgir.

Although the Battle of Harsfjord took place at sea, it bore little resemblance to the real thing. naval battle. Throwing weapons did not play any significant role. Much more important was the ability to board the enemy. Rams were also not used. But the art of skillful use of tactical techniques was highly valued.
The exact size and composition of the armies are unknown to us, although Icelandic written sources claim that this was the largest battle ever undertaken by King Harald. The saga of Egil Skalagrimson details the sailors who were on the forecastle of the ship next to Harald, who were to play an important role in the battle. Among them was Thorolf Kvendalfson, brother of Salagrim Kvendalfson, and uncle of Egil.

A detachment of selected warriors at the bow of the ship stood behind the berserkers. The Egil saga says that there were 12 royal berserkers. In Scandinavian literature, the number 12 is often used when mentioning these unusual warriors. Apparently, they used to unite in groups of 12 people. In the saga of Grettir and in Steluson's Heimskringla, berserkers are also called ulfhednar. This means that there was some kind of difference between ordinary berserkers and ulfhednars. But it seems more likely to us that these ferocious warriors simply acquired another symbol in addition to the bear - the wild wolf. Claims that the Ulfhednar dressed in wolf skins have no basis.

The king intended, going side by side with King Thorir Longbeard, to strike at one of the main leaders of the allied forces. Harald sent his Ulhednars forward, whose onslaught few could resist. Thorir Longbeard was slain during the attack. His supporters were defeated, which helped Harald win.

Without taking into account the mystical influence on the turning point of the battle, which in that era was given great importance, we can conclude that a centralized monarchy is capable of raising and equipping a highly efficient army. If sent forward at the most crucial moment, it can decide the outcome of the battle. Harald Harfarga's tactics were relatively simple, but the result had a huge impact on the entire history of Norway and the character of the Viking warrior.

Battle of Branenburg, 937

The central public figure of the Middle Ages remained the commander, who was a generous master of the soldiers subordinate to him. People fought not only for honor and glory, but also for the corresponding reward. The form of the gift depended on the status of the recipient. Thus, a young warrior from the commander’s personal guard could be content with property, for example, jewelry with precious stones. For nobles and experienced warriors, obtaining rights to own land was much more important. During the transition from a distributive economy to monetary exchange of silver coins, a class of warrior mercenaries emerged. The story of Egil Skalagrimson near Branenburg illuminates some of the stages of this period.

Although the kings of Wessex established power in the valleys, the outlying areas of Britain, where Celts and Scandinavians predominated, remained hopeful of independence. The similarity between the views of Athelstan and Harald Hafarga in 872 is striking. The existence of friendly relations, or at least the proximity of interests, is indicated by the fact that Athelstan in every possible way favored Hakon, the son of Harold.

The anti-English alliance made several small kings whose possessions were on the coast of the Irish Sea as its political partners. Among them was Olaf, King of Dublin, a man of mixed Celtic and Scandinavian descent who, according to Egil's saga, was the main instigator of the unification.
When the allies invaded Northumbria, the agreement between Athelstan and the northern kings came to an end. How far they advanced into the Saxon lands we do not know. After the defeat of the combined army of Count Goodric and Alfger of Northumbria, the northern part of the kingdom of Athelstan was devastated. To stop the plunder of his country, Athelstan challenged the allies to meet at a certain location for a battle that would decide who would rule Britain.
To continue looting after such an offer meant incurring indelible shame. In preparation for the campaign to the north, Athelstan sent messengers throughout Western Europe with the news of the recruitment of mercenaries into his army. Egil Skalagrimson and his brother Thorof learned of Athelstan's intentions while they were in the Netherlands, whose king appointed them commanders of a mercenary army. However, the chronicle does not reflect what role the mercenaries played in this battle. Much greater importance is attached to the contribution to the victory of the West Saxons and Merka warriors, whose exploits are described in some detail.

But in the saga of Egil a lot is said about the Skalagrimson brothers during the battle. The saga states that their professional code of honor determined everything from the equipment in which they were equipped to the unparalleled courage with which they faced death. The brothers had strong armor and special weapons that could pierce chain mail. Fulfilling the agreement concluded with the king, they rushed into the thick of the battle. At this time, Thorolf was abandoned by the Saxon Count Alfger. Despite this, Thorolf managed to get out of the encirclement and even defeat Gring, the British commander commanding Strathclyde's army. The Allied army continued to resist, and during a brief break in the battle, Athelstan personally offered his gratitude to Skalagrimson. The moral of the saga is that you can’t always trust even the king himself. Athelstan placed his troops in unfavorable positions, which cost Thorolf his life. He was killed in a surprise attack by Strathclyde warriors who suddenly appeared from the forest.

The surviving warriors from Thorolf's unit were forced to retreat. But after Egil appeared in their ranks, they were able to gather the rest of their forces to launch a counterattack and force the enemy to flee. During this offensive, another commander of Stetclyde's army, Adils, was killed. The personal nature of the relationship between the commander and the soldiers subordinate to him was reflected in the fact that the Britons from Strathclyde fled from the battlefield immediately after the death of their commander. The death of Adils, like the death of Thorir Longbeard at Harsfjord, freed them from the duty to continue the battle. The professionalism of the warriors from Thorolf's detachment allowed the battle to quickly end.

Further, the author of the saga writes that the last stage of the battle of Branenburg was the confrontation between Egil and King Athelstan. The Saxon king sacrificed everything for the sake of power. The Kveldulf clan was divided into two groups: dark-haired and blond members. Thorolf, who belonged to the blond group, was sensitive to royal insignia. Egil, who belonged to the dark-haired group, retained the skepticism inherent in a bygone, more independent age. Trust in the king led Thorolf to death, and Egil sought a way to repay the loss his clan had suffered.

Having finished pursuing the enemy, Egil returned to the battlefield to solemnly bury his brother, over whose grave two poems were read. One of them glorified the feat of Thorolf and spoke of the grief of his surviving brother, the second spoke of the victory won by Egil over the enemy. After fulfilling his family duty, Egil returned to the king’s tent, where the victory feast was in full swing. The saga says that Athelstan ordered that Egil be given a place of honor. However, this was not enough for the son of Salagrim. He occupied it without removing his armor, and sat gloomy and silent. Only after the king, expressing his respect and gratitude to the warrior who had suffered a heavy loss, presented Egil with a golden ring, symbolically presented on the tip of a sword, did he, somewhat softened, take off his armor and join the feasting.

Battle of Maldon, 991

The great "Old English Poem" is a work written on the death of Byrhtnot, an elder from Essex. It not only details the Battle of Maldon, but also describes the ideal of the German warrior. In historical context, this battle finally decided the fate of the Saxon kingdom and set in motion a series of events that ended with the overthrow of the Wessex royal dynasty.

By the end of the 10th century, the Scandinavians had not won a single battle against the British for 100 years. The Kingdom of Danelo lost some of its independence. Then, to maintain centralized control over the territory of the state, many fortresses were built. A combined Viking army attempting to break through the Saxon defenses at Essex laid siege to the fortified town of Maldon in 925. The arrival of reinforcements prevented the city's surrender, and the vanguard of the Saxon army moved further north to the kingdom of York, where it managed to advance much further into the territory. By the time of the Second Battle of Madelon, the Saxons had completely seized control of the lowlands of Britain. The kingdom was divided into regions, each of which was headed by an elder, who differed from the king in that he was not the permanent owner of the lands subordinate to him. Elders were royal officials and could therefore be appointed, dismissed, or moved to another region. One of these elders was Byrhtnot, a man of noble family who at first controlled the whole of East Anglia, and in his old age occupied a less responsible position in Essex.

In the 980s, Vikings appeared again off the coast of England. This time their army did not consist of farmers from overpopulated Scandinavia who dreamed of settling on free lands, but they were not led by petty leaders from the displaced Norwegian nobility. Now they were robbers, prowling for silver. The depletion of Central Asian silver mines has led to the collapse of trade routes that ran through the lands of Rus'. The Vikings had an urgent need to find a new source of financial resources. Among the new wave of Vikings were men such as Thorkell the Tall, one of the commanders of the semi-professional Jomsviking warriors, and Olaf Trygvason, a pretender to the Norwegian throne. Both of them desperately needed money to implement their ambitious plans.

Renewed raids on the east coast of England in the summer of 991 differed from the smaller raids of previous decades. Large towns such as Ipswich became targets of large armies of raiders. There is evidence that the Vikings near Maldon had a fleet of 93 ships. However, the exact size of the army of invaders is impossible to determine, since the size of the ship's crews is unknown to us. Approximate calculations indicate that there were several thousand warriors.

The army that Byrhtnoth commanded consisted of his personal guard, probably sufficient, since his military career was long and successful enough, and his authority was so high that he could easily convince people to remain in his army after the expiration of the official treaty. His army also included local recruits. Their combat training and personal qualities left much to be desired. Lack of experience and dedication could have a fatal impact on the outcome of the battle. Maldon was a fairly important regional center, well suited to host a royal mint. Essex, threatened by Viking invasion, put a lot of money into circulation.

After the sack of Eastwich, the Vikings rounded the Tendring peninsula, entered the mouth of the Black River and settled on the island of Northey. And although the fortress of Maldon remained impregnable, they were firmly in defensive positions by the time Byrnot arrived, approaching the tidal causeway of Northey Island from the landward side.
Both opponents, who had approximately equal strength, were eager to engage in battle. Byrnot wanted to prevent pirates from plundering other lands, and he was sincerely convinced that he could defeat the Vikings on his own. The poem says that Byrhnot, addressing his people, said that warriors who do not value their own good name are free to leave the battlefield, but those who are bound by a word of honor must remain.

Dam defense

The Old English Poem tells the story of a typical early medieval battle. The Vikings sent an envoy to Byrthnoth, who delivered a letter from his commander with threats and demands for money. Being loyal to King Ethelred and the ideas national pride Byrhtnot indignantly rejected these demands. Refusing to succumb to extortion and completely angering the enemy, Byrhtnoth was forced to engage in battle, which took place in three stages. At the first stage, the opponents, located on opposite sides of the bay that separated the island of Northey from the land, used throwing weapons. The dam itself was defended by three heroes. It is difficult to say to what extent the author of the poem took into account real facts, but when reading it, one must remember that he was clearly influenced by the classic plot of “Horace on the Bridge.” If we try to bring this part of the poem closer to reality, we can conclude that it most likely talks about three Saxons, commanders of small units who volunteered to defend forward positions.

While on the island, the barbarians were unable to break through the Saxon defenses. Then they again sent a messenger who said that their commander wanted to continue the battle on land. Byrhnot agreed, for which the author of the poem accuses him of being too bold. The Battle of Maldon, like the Battle of Branenburg, was fought according to rules that are difficult for us to understand today. Byrhtnot's desire to quickly end the battle led to the fact that the pagans, quickly crossing the bay, took up very convenient positions from which they continued the battle. Another mistake Byrhtnoth made was that he entrusted Godric alone to lead the attack of the cavalrymen, who, having mounted his horse, left the battlefield. The Essex recruits mistook Godric for Byrhtnoth and followed him.

The guards, cut off from the commander, were left at the mercy of the Vikings, who tried with all their might to capture the commander-in-chief. Byrhtnoth was eventually struck down by a well-thrown dart. His personal army decided to end the battle without retreating from the body of their commander. The laws of the Jomsquikings also included the rule not to surrender until the last, but still allowed them to retreat in the face of a clearly superior enemy.

King Ethelred was forced to pay constantly increasing sums of money to the Scandinavian robbers who repeatedly disturbed the peace in his kingdom at the end of the 10th century. The army of the Anglo-Scandinavian elite that emerged during this period largely consisted of units of warriors related by blood ties. Typical representatives of such warriors were the royal Haskalah, commanded by Harald Godvison, who died in the battle of Hastings.

Viking leaders

Graga Hrolf, son of Jarl Rognvald, was expelled from Norway for violating the prohibition of brigandage within the kingdom of Harald Hafarga. Granga and his detachment operated on the Seine River at the beginning of the 10th century. He became so comfortable in the area that the French monarchy was forced to cede to him the territory of the future Duchy of Normandy. When, during negotiations, the Franks wanted to see the leader of the Vikings, they replied that they were all equal and they had no leader. They probably gave such an evasive answer on purpose, since the further history of the Duchy of Normandy suggests that this Viking unit still had a leader named Rolf. In general, we know little about the Viking commanders. Their units, which traded in the 8th-10th centuries in northwestern Europe, united if circumstances required, and were just as freely divided into small units.

If long-term contracts were concluded, it was only with the immediate commander of the detachment, who could be a fellow countryman or a close relative of the soldiers subordinate to him. In this case, the detachment was a tightly knit combat unit, which had its advantages. His warriors were capable of more coordinated interaction and mutual assistance; they were less likely to leave wounded comrades on the battlefield.

Good commanders made a tour of their troops immediately before the battle. To raise the morale of the soldiers, speeches were made and even poems were recited. Sometimes poets composed poems directly on the battlefield, which spoke of their self-control and composure, which, undoubtedly, should have been transmitted to the soldiers who listened to them.

The Vikings were characterized by extreme behavior in battle, which was probably based on the tenets of their religion, which glorified brave warriors. It was also a demonstration of fighting qualities to the war deity whom the Vikings served, and at the same time preparation for the corresponding afterlife. The sagas are replete with descriptions of battles in which the main motive for the actions of the participants was far from preserving life.

Another characteristic feature of the Vikings was determination and willpower. During the brief and unpopular reign of Erik "Bloodaxe" in Norway, Egil Skalagrimson fell victim to Queen Grunhild. The king ordered Egil's execution, but the Icelander managed to escape the tyrant's hands. The king's servants, carefully guarding all the boats, lured Egil to the island. Having taken off his equipment and tied his sword, helmet and spear into one knot, he swam to the nearest island. After his escape, the king increased the number of servants sent to capture the condemned man. One day, she landed on the island where Egil was hiding and from where he kept close surveillance of what was happening. small boat with 12 warriors. Nine of them went ashore and went deeper into the island. Egil attacked those remaining in the boat, taking advantage of the surprise of the attack and the local topography. He killed one warrior on the spot and seriously wounded another in the leg as he tried to climb up the slope. The survivor wanted to push the boat away from the shore with a pole, but Egil grabbed the rope attached to the side and did not allow the victim to leave. So Egil Skalagrimson, with whom few in Norway could compare in fortitude and combat skill, escaped the punishment imposed on him by the cruel King Eric.

The courage and determination inherent in Egil were integral features of the warrior, whose image is described in Scandinavian literature. Havamal, the mythical advisor to the god Odin in the affairs of earthly people, emphasizes the importance of observation and quick attack. Oral traditions, which variously described the qualities necessary for a true warrior, had big influence on the formation of the character of ordinary Vikings, as well as their commanders.

Viking armor and shields

Armor
Not a single Viking Age chain mail has reached us, and even individual fragments of chain mail are found quite rarely. Although it was customary for several generations of warriors to use the same chain mail, this alone cannot explain the paucity of finds. Most often, chain mail armor is mentioned in the sagas of the late Middle Ages. Stellason, who described the 1066 Battle of Stamford Bridge, concludes that the lack of chain mail armor among the soldiers of the Norwegian army influenced the unfavorable outcome of the battle. In fact, the Norwegians left their armor on board the ships that were stationed at Ricola. The poem about the battle, composed by Harald Hadraada, also talks about the lack of armor. The king himself was dressed in an unusually long, knee-length chain mail, which had a personal name - “Emma”. Apparently, over time, chain mail came into widespread use. The Vikings probably wore chainmail hoods, which were widespread on the continent. The Haskali of the time of the decline of the Saxon kingdom were Danes. The tapestry from the city of Bayeux shows the similarity of the military equipment of the Saxons and Normans.

There is evidence that the Scandinavians used plate armor, which most likely was brought from the East. Several plates from such armor were found on the territory of Birka, a remote farm that was once the main trading city of central Switzerland. The discovery of such an unusual find in a merchant settlement can only be explained by close trade ties with the East.

Very little information about armor made of leather and fabric has reached us. Stelason mentions a gift given to King Olaf the Saint, which consisted of 13 sets of armor made from deer skins. They say that such armor could withstand a stronger blow than chain mail. On the gravestones from Gotland one can discern armor that looks like a quilted jacket made of multi-layered fabric. However, it is impossible to say exactly what kind of armor this is due to the blur of the image.

Shields
Gotlandic gravestones depict warriors holding shield-like objects in their hands. By measuring the proportions of the figures, we can conclude that these shields were about 60 cm or less in diameter. However, archaeologists have not discovered a single similar shield. There is an assumption that if the sculptor had depicted shields with a diameter of 90 cm, they would have covered most of the figure. Perhaps he sacrificed accuracy of proportions for a more detailed depiction of people. In Gotlandic grave images there are other examples of neglect of the proportionality of the image, which was generally characteristic of works of art of that period.

A number of Viking Age shields have been discovered in a ship graveyard at Gokstad. However, there is an assumption that these shields were made specifically for burial, and combat shields were significantly different from them and looked different. Researchers who conducted a series of experiments in 1990 concluded that the Gokstad shields were too bulky for close combat and interfered with movement in tight formations. Quite a lot of shield umbos were found. Historians have suggested that the edges of many shields had metal trim. However, none of the shields found had a metal rim. Many parts of the shields were damaged due to imperfect excavation techniques used by the first archaeologists.

In the first centuries of the Viking Age, round shields predominated. Images of oval shields can only be seen on the Ozerberg tapestry. Archaeologists also failed to find a single similar specimen. In the 11th century, kite shields first appeared in Scandinavia. It is unknown how widespread they were at the end of the Viking Age, but almost all Anglo-Norman haskali had such shields by the time of the Battle of Hastings. One would expect that these highly paid professional warriors were equipped with last word military continental "fashion".

Although later Icelandic sagas often say that the Vikings had emblems on their shields, historians do not consider this evidence credible. They believe that the authors of the sagas simply followed a widespread medieval tradition. Thus, in the saga of Bren-Nial it is said that one of the warriors had a coat of arms in the form of a dragon on his shield, and the other had a coat of arms in the form of a lion. At first glance this may seem anachronistic, but if we consider that the shields from the Bayeux Tapestry contain images of animals, we can assume that such shields could have been in use less than a century earlier.

During their campaigns in Vinland (as the Vikings called America), the Greenlanders used shields of symbolic colors. The red shield meant they were ready to fight; the white shield indicated the intention to begin peace negotiations. It is known that in 1015, a gold, red or blue cross was depicted on the white shields of the companions of St. Olaf. During the battle, the cross served as an identification mark to distinguish comrades in arms from pagan enemies.

Viking tunics and helmets

Tunics
During the first two centuries of the Viking Age, knee-length tunics with a waist-length belt were common. Until the end of this era, they did not undergo significant changes. The neckline of the tunic was round or rectangular with a rope for tightening, a hook or a large ball that served as a button. The sleeves were long, reaching to the wrist or falling below. The part of the sleeve from the cuff to the elbow fit snugly to the arm, but was loose enough that the sleeve could be rolled up. Slots were sometimes made around the neckline for a decorative cord. Exactly the same lace was passed along the edge of the cuffs. Embroidery could be used instead of lace. To increase the length of the tunic, a piece of fabric of a different color was sewn to the hem.

Based on the colors in the Bayeux Tapestry, we can draw some conclusions about the Viking Age. The technology of dyeing fabrics did not undergo significant changes until the 11th century. The amazing brightness of the paints, which have withstood the effects of time, indicates the use of a good, and probably expensive, fixative. It is unknown whether these fabrics were made in Scandinavia itself or imported. It is likely that clothing made from undyed fabrics was worn by the poorest classes of the population, while high-ranking Vikings preferred more colorful clothing.

Warriors everywhere wore cloaks made of rectangular and square panels of fabric, which were removed before battle. They were pinned in front with a pin or brooch. The sagas also mention embroidered cloaks. Hoods were a fold from a cloak or a separately cut part of a garment.
Among the civilian headdresses found at Birka were the remains of an oriental-style hat with fur trim. It is believed that the hood made of red-brown moire silk, discovered in the Coopergate burial, was part of a woman’s outfit. Several sagas about Odin say that this deity wore a hat made of felt.

One more important detail clothes were leather belts with decorative buckles and straps at the ends. The belts were usually narrow, less than 2.5 cm in width. Accessories for belts were more often made of copper alloys, less often - of bone, painted in different colors. A widely used piece of equipment were leather bags. Wallets were a circle cut out of leather with holes along the edges into which a cord was threaded. A large wallet of a similar design served as a backpack during the hike.

Helmets
The helmet found in Hermandba and dated to the end of the 11th century can be safely attributed to the Viking Age. In appearance, it resembles an early Scandinavian helmet with a fixed visor. However, there are significant differences between them. The Hermandb helmet consists of a rim, two metal strips and four curved plates forming a dome. One of the stripes runs along the center of the helmet from the forehead to the back of the head, the other, located perpendicular to it, goes from the left temple to the right. Both stripes, like the fixed visor, are attached to the rim. Four curved plates are attached to crisscrossing metal strips. Helmets from the Valsgård and Wendel burials, dating back to the pre-Viking era, are of a more complex design. Some of them have a reinforcing ridge, others have additional side pads. In general, the Viking Age helmets bear a strong resemblance to the examples recovered from the burials at Hermandba.
An antler carving discovered at Sigtuna, Sweden, shows a warrior wearing a conical helmet. It consists of four plates riveted to each other. A row of rivets running along the edge of the helmet suggests that the plates were attached to the rim. A protrusion similar to a nasal plate could be part of the longitudinal strip of the structure.

Viking monumental art, such as the cross fragments from Kirlevington, Sockburn and Midleton, shows people wearing headdresses very similar to conical helmets, although they could equally well have been peaked caps or hoods. The cross from Weston Church depicts a warrior with an uncovered head.
Helmets from Central Europe, usually dating from the Viking Age, include the "Olmutsky" helmet, located in Vienna, and the "helmet of St. Venkeslas" from the treasury of the Prague Cathedral. Both of these helmets are forged from the same piece of metal. We have no information about whether the Scandinavian gunsmiths owned a similar forging technique or not. But judging by the variety of equipment used by the Vikings, they may have worn such helmets. In the annals there is a mention that the equipment of 100 selected warriors, whose unit was commanded by Olaf the Holy, consisted of chain mail and "foreign" helmets.

Viking weapons: swords and spears

Typical offensive weapons found in Viking graves are swords, axes, spears and bows. The weapons of the Danes of the early Viking Age are similar to those of the Swedes and Norwegians. However, the adoption of Christianity put an end to the custom of putting weapons that belonged to him during his lifetime in the grave of a warrior. This, of course, reduced the number of archaeological finds in Denmark dating from the end of the Viking Age.

Swords
The richness of the decoration of axes of that era also depended on the status of their owner. A magnificent mother's ax without silver inlay is nothing more than a working tool for cutting wood. The shape of the ax butt varied depending on the purpose of the tool. It should be noted that an ordinary ax could serve as a good weapon on occasion. At the end of the Viking Age, special axes with a wide blade appeared, which were held with two hands. By the time of the Battle of Hastings they had become the typical weapon of the Anglo-Danish Haskali. Probably, these axes began to be used so widely due to the widespread use of chain mail. The ax with a tooth at the bottom of the blade is sometimes considered exclusively Scandinavian. However, we cannot say this for sure, since in the Middle Ages axes of similar types were quite widespread.

No weapons were found during excavations of Viking burials. mass use, except for copies. It was probably not the custom to place the halberds described in the sagas in the grave; or perhaps this is a later addition to the Old Norse written source. The saga, for example, says that Egil Skalagrimson had a weapon capable of piercing chain mail. Its name is similar to the name of a spear, which originated from an agricultural tool - a hook, which was later equipped with additional hooks for use in battle. The described weapons were found in Frankish graves. His image can often be seen in drawings from the period following the Viking Age. But most of these specimens still date back to the end of the Middle Ages. It seems that this weapon was not used very often by the Scandinavians in the 8th-11th centuries.

Spears
The spear is the third most common weapon in Danish warrior burials, after the ax and sword. It can be assumed that the merits of the spear as a fighting and hunting weapon could have contributed to its wider use. Since spearheads were simpler and cheaper to make than any other weapon of the era, it is likely that spears were used more often than swords. Perhaps, due to the cheapness of the spears, they were not given such mystical significance as swords, and therefore were less likely to be placed in the graves of fallen warriors.

The spears supplied to the Carolingian Vikings have a characteristic wide blade with wings protruding from the sleeve. This detail, similar to the crossbar of a later model of the spear used to hunt wild boar, prevented the shaft from penetrating deeply into the body of the victim. This device could also be used to knock the shield out of the enemy's hands. There was also a spear with a narrow blade that resembled a dart. The intricate decorations sometimes found on such spears did not preclude their use as throwing weapons. A warrior who threw a spear could return his weapon, immediately distinguishing it from many others by its individual decorations.

Tools recovered from a blacksmith's grave at Bigland. Here we see a ladle, blacksmith's hammers, scissors, stakes and an anvil.

Viking weapon making

Viking armory

Information about Viking weapons, contained mainly in Icelandic written sources, mainly consists of stories about the magical weapons of legendary heroes, passed down from generation to generation. These descriptions are full of vague mystical terms and expressions. We cannot say how accurate such stories are, but one thing is clear: the manufacture of personal weapons was accompanied by certain religious ceremonies. It is possible that such strange descriptions of weapon forging appeared due to ignorance or misunderstanding of all the intricacies of blacksmithing. The following text makes it clear how difficult it is to use sagas as historical sources.

The Tidrik saga describes the process of making weapons by the demigod Woland the Blacksmith. This implausible story begins with the fact that the finished sword blade is advised to be cut into small pieces and fed to domestic animals so that it is completely mixed with their droppings. In the saga, the demigod Woland repeats this strange action twice until he obtains a satisfactory result. In the Arab chronicles there is a description of a similar technique for making weapons used by the Dews (we know that the Scandinavians settled along the banks of large rivers on lands that later became part of Rus'). Perhaps the author of the saga unnecessarily allegorically described the use of animal droppings to introduce nitric acid salts into the steel blade.

The most necessary component of steel blades made from ferrous metals was carbon. Steel cannot be hardened if it contains less than 0.2% carbon. When its carbon content is more than 1%, it ceases to be steel. Viking blacksmiths determined the amount of carbon contained in steel using traditional methods passed down from previous generations of swordsmiths. Apparently, their blacksmiths back in the 2nd century BC. realized that the surface of iron could be saturated with carbon if it was placed in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide with a reduced oxygen content. This can be achieved by heating to high temperature boxes made of clay containing coal-bearing material with an iron product placed inside it.

Medium quality steel could be made by heating iron ore to 1200 degrees in a forge along with organic materials such as bone. It was then forged into a steel strip. Combining this with strips of lower carbon content produced a blade whose surface looked as if it were decorated with an intricate pattern. Axes and spearheads were made of ordinary steel. The edges of the blade were sometimes welded to reduce the fragility of the low carbon strips.

By examining the area around Black Duck Creek in Newfoundland, data can be obtained on all stages of the gun-making process. Archaeologists have reliable information about the Vikings' development of bog iron deposits found in places where certain types of plants were concentrated. At the westernmost point of the known Viking routes, a structure that closely resembles a forge was discovered. Probably, the inhabitants of this temporary settlement could already produce iron.

The method used by the dwarf Alberich for making the Equisax sword required burying the blade of the weapon in the ground for some time to improve the quality of the steel. This technology probably originated from a forging method in which iron druses were immersed in a swamp so that inclusions of non-ferrous metals would come out of the ore into environment. After some time, the remaining sediment was converted into a large bar at a temperature well below the melting point of iron. A piece of iron could be freed from inclusions by heating. Before the modern metallurgical process allowed the free exploitation of iron oxide deposits, most of the iron was extracted from the ore by the Scandinavians in the manner described above.

Swedish Vikings

Swedish Vikings

Swedish Vikings

reconstruction of the appearance of the Vikings

Viking archer, Hv.

The Viking Age, which roughly lasted from 750 to 1100, is usually considered a separate era, although historically it represents a natural continuation of the era of migration, its political results were enormous.

Viking Age swords, or Carolingian-type sword, is typically longer, thicker, and heavier than its Migration Age predecessors. Viking swords, in view of the fact that during the period under review, the shape of their blades changed little, it is customary to distinguish and classify them according to the shape of the handles. However, the situation here is somewhat more complicated than with swords from the Migration Period, since many scientists involved in the archeology of weapons have come up with competing classification systems.

Classification of Viking swords

Jan Petersen in 1919 in the book “De norske vikingesverd” identified 26 different shapes of hilts in the main typology (here we can recommend to the interested user the excellent monograph “Swords of the Viking Age”). In 1927, R. Wheeler combined the most important types into seven categories. Wheeler's typology was expanded by Ewart Oakeshott in the sixties. Oakeshott added two more categories that characterize the transition from the Viking sword to the knight's sword.

In 1991, Alfred Gebig, in his work Beitrage zur morphologischen Entwicklung des Schwerts im Mittelalter, proposed another, well-thought-out taxonomy of the Viking sword.

For Viking swords, the Gaibig system is more interesting, but for knightly swords, Oakeshott's taxonomy, as before, remains unsurpassed.

Although most Viking swords were double-edged, contrary to popular belief, all of them were not. Naturally, single-edged specimens also appeared. Unlike later sabers, their blades were mostly straight, more machete-like. These blades were usually made during the transition period from the Migration Age to the early Viking Age. Most of them can be classified as type II swords. A characteristic feature of single-edged Viking swords is that they lack a fuller. With a blade length of 80-85 centimeters, they are significantly longer than double-edged swords of the same period. But the single-edged sword could not surpass the double-edged sword. In the fighting methods of the early Middle Ages, two blades provided a clear advantage: when one blade became dull or became jagged, the sword was turned in the hand and the other blade was used.

Viking weapons there were swords, spears and battle axes, as well as a bow and arrows.

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Swords

The swords were partly brought from neighboring countries, in particular from the Frankish Kingdom. This is evidenced by the marks of Frankish weapon workshops on blades - Ulfberht, in particular. A considerable part was made in Scandinavia itself, often copying and developing imported samples. Single-edged swords were used in the first half of the Viking Age, up to the 10th century at most - later only double-edged ones are found. If you believe Petersen's research, the quality of imported Frankish swords was much higher than similar Scandinavian ones - the carbon content in the steel of Norwegian swords is significantly lower.

Compared to later European bladed weapons, which weighed 3 kilograms, the sword of the Viking Age is very light, however, due to the design of the handle and blade, it is almost impossible to deliver any blows other than chopping. There are no clear sources - descriptions or images - that show exactly how they fought with these weapons. One can only assume that the sword was most often used for work right hand paired with a round wooden fist shield. The blow of the sword was most likely taken on the shield, and one’s own sword was used to strike back. Blows in this combination are most effective when applied to the head or legs, for which there was practically no protective equipment in the Viking Age.

Axes

According to, for example, Norwegian archaeologists, for every 1,500 finds of swords in Viking Age burials, there are 1,200 axes, and often an ax and a sword lay together in the same burial. It is often quite difficult to distinguish a working ax from a combat axe, but a Viking Age battle ax is usually smaller in size and somewhat lighter than a working one. The butt of the battle ax is much smaller, and the blade itself is much narrower. Most battle axes were presumably used with one hand.

At a later time, in the 11th centuries, massive so-called “Danish axes” - with crescent edges, a blade width of up to 45 cm, called “brodex” or “bridex” - breið öx (carpenter’s axe).

Knives (Saxons)

The sax is a long knife with a single edge that was usually carried by honorary citizens in Norwegian society. More long version called skramasaks. IN Peaceful time it was a kind of machete, but was also a formidable weapon in close combat. The rich man owned a larger knife, slightly smaller in size than the sword.

Spears

Spears are the most common type of weapon. The northern spear had a shaft about five feet (about 1.5 m) long with a long, wide, leaf-shaped tip. Such a spear could both stab and chop. According to other sources, this spear was also called a spear. The shafts were made mainly from ash, bound with iron so that the shaft could not be cut. Such a spear weighed a lot, so throwing it was not easy.

There were also special throwing spears, similar to European darts and sulits. Such spears were shorter, with a narrower tip. Often a metal ring was attached to them, indicating the center of gravity and helping the warrior to give the throw the right direction.

Luke

The bow was made from one piece of wood, usually yew, ash or elm, and braided hair was often used as a bowstring. Arrows in the 7th-9th centuries. had different tips depending on the application - wider and flatter for hunting, narrower and thinner for combat use.

see also

Notes

Links

• Tsepkov A. I. Viking weapons in the 9th–11th centuries. According to the Icelandic sagas and the “Earthly Circle”. - Ryazan: Alexandria, 2013. - 320 p.
• Chartrand R., Duram K., Harrison M. Vikings. Sailors, pirates, warriors. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. - 192 p. - Series " Military history humanity." - ISBN 978-5-699-23504-9, 9785699235049

• Ewart Oakeshott: The Sword in the Age of Chivalry, 1994, ISBN 978-0851153629
• Alan R. Williams Methods of Manufacture of Swords in Medieval Europe: Illustrated by the Metallography of Some Examples, Gladius 13 (1977), pp. 75 - 101.
• M. Müller-Wille: Ein neues ULFBERHT-Schwert aus Hamburg. Verbreitung, Formenkunde und Herkunft, Offa 27, 1970, 65-91
• Ian Peirce: Swords of the Viking Age. The Boydell Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0851159140
• Anne Stalsberg “The Vlfberht Sword Blades Re-evaluated”
• Alan Williams “A Metallurgical Study of Some Viking Swords”

On a bloody sword -
Flower made of gold.
The best of rulers
Honors his chosen ones.
A warrior cannot be dissatisfied

Such a magnificent decoration.
Warlike ruler
Increases his glory
With your generosity.
("Egil's Saga". Translation by Johannes W. Jensen)

Let's start with the fact that for some reason the Viking theme is being politicized again. “In the West they don’t want to admit that these were pirates and robbers” - I recently had a chance to read something similar at VO. and this only means that the person is poorly informed about what he is writing or that he has been thoroughly brainwashed, which, by the way, is not only done in Ukraine. Because otherwise he would have known that not only on English language, but also in Russian there is a book by the publishing house “Astrel” (this is one of the most popular and accessible publications) “Vikings”, the author of which is the famous English scientist Ian Heath, which was published in the Russian Federation back in 2004. The translation is good, that is, it is written in quite accessible, not at all “scientific” language. and right there on page 4 it is directly written that in Scandinavian written sources the word “Viking” means “piracy” or “raid”, and the one who participates in it is a “Viking”. The etymology of this word is discussed in detail, starting from the meaning of “a pirate hiding in a narrow sea bay” and to “vik” - the geographical name of an area in Norway, which the author considers unlikely. And the book itself begins with a description of the Viking raid on the monastery in Lindisfarne, which was accompanied by robbery and bloodshed. Frankish, Saxon, Slavic, Byzantine, Spanish (Muslim), Greek and Irish names are given - so there’s simply nowhere to go in more detail. It is indicated that the growth of trade in Europe created favorable conditions for piracy, plus the success of the northerners in shipbuilding. So the fact that the Vikings are pirates is said several times in this book, and no one glosses over this circumstance in it. As, in fact, in other publications, both translated into Russian and not translated!

Depiction of events that took place in the 9th century by a Byzantine artist of the 12th century. The miniature shows the imperial bodyguards - Varangs ("Varangian Guard"). It is clearly visible and you can count 18 axes, 7 spears and 4 banners. Miniature from the 16th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes, kept in the National Library in Madrid.

We'll talk about the Vikings themselves some other time. And now, since we are on a military site, it makes sense to consider the weapons of the Vikings, thanks to which (and various other circumstances - who can argue?) They managed to keep Europe at bay for almost three centuries.

Animal head from the Oseberg ship. Museum in Oslo. Norway.

Let's start with the fact that the Viking attacks on England and France at that time were nothing more than a confrontation between infantry arriving at the battlefield on ships and horsemen in heavy weapons, who also tried to arrive at the site of the enemy attack as quickly as possible in order to punish arrogant "northerners". Much of the armor of the troops of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty (named after Charlemagne) was a continuation of the same Roman tradition, only the shields took on the shape of a “reverse drop”, which became traditional for the era of the so-called early Middle Ages. This was largely caused by Charles’s own interest in Latin culture; it is not for nothing that his time is even called the Carolingian Renaissance. On the other hand, the weapons of ordinary soldiers remained traditionally German and consisted of short swords, axes, short spears, and armor was often replaced by a shirt made of two layers of leather and a filling between them, quilted with rivets with convex caps.

The famous weather vane from Soderal. Such weather vanes adorned the prows of Viking longships and were signs of special significance.

Most likely, such “shells” did a good job of blocking lateral blows, although they did not protect against punctures. But the further from the 8th century, the sword became more and more elongated and rounded at the end so that it became possible only to chop. Already at this time, parts of the relics began to be placed in the heads of the handles of swords, which is where the custom of applying the lips to the handle of a sword originated, and not at all because its shape was similar to a cross. So leather armor was most likely no less widespread than metal armor, especially among warriors who did not have a substantial income. And again, probably, in some internecine battles, where the whole matter was decided by the number of combatants, such protection would be sufficient.

"A Thracian woman kills a Varang." Miniature from the 16th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes, kept in the National Library in Madrid. (As you can see, the Varangians in Byzantium were not always good attitude. Dissolved, go, hands, here she is him and ...)

But then, at the end of the 8th century, Norman raids from the North began and European countries entered the three-century “Viking Age”. And it was they who became the factor that most strongly influenced the development of military art among the Franks. It cannot be said that Europe encountered the predatory attacks of the “northern people” for the first time, but the numerous campaigns of the Vikings and their seizure of new lands have now acquired the character of a truly massive expansion, comparable only to the invasion of barbarians on the lands of the Roman Empire. At first the raids were unorganized, and the number of attackers themselves was small. However, even with such forces, the Vikings managed to capture Ireland, England, plunder many cities and monasteries in Europe, and in 845 take Paris. In the 10th century, the Danish kings launched a massive offensive on the continent, while the northern lands of distant Rus', and even imperial Constantinople, suffered the heavy hand of sea robbers!

Across Europe, a feverish collection of so-called “Danish money” begins in order to somehow pay off the invaders or return the lands and cities they seized. But it was also necessary to fight the Vikings, so cavalry, which could be easily transferred from one area to another, turned out to be extremely necessary. This was the main advantage of the Franks in the battle with the Vikings, since the equipment of the Viking warrior, in general, was not very different from the equipment of the Frankish horsemen.

An absolutely fantastic depiction of the victory of the Franks, led by King Louis III and his brother Carloman, over the Vikings in 879. From the Grand Chronicle of France, illustrated by Jean Fouquet. (National Library of France. Paris)

First of all, it was a round wooden shield, the material for which was usually linden boards (where, by the way, its name comes from, “Linden of War”), in the middle of which a metal convex umbon was strengthened. The diameter of the shield was approximately one yard (about 91 cm). Scandinavian sagas often talk about painted shields, and it is interesting that each color on them occupied either a quarter or half of its entire surface. They assembled it by gluing these planks together crosswise, in the middle they strengthened a metal umbon, inside of which there was a shield handle, after which the shield was covered with leather and its edge was also strengthened with either leather or metal. The most popular shield color was red, but it is known that there were yellow, black and white shields, while colors such as blue or green were rarely chosen for painting. All 64 shields found on the famous Gokstad ship were painted yellow and black. There are reports of shields depicting mythological characters and entire scenes, with multi-colored stripes and even... with Christian crosses.

One of 375 rune stones from the 5th–10th centuries. from the island of Gotland in Sweden. This stone below shows a fully equipped ship, followed by a battle scene and warriors marching towards Valhalla!

The Vikings were very fond of poetry, and metaphorical poetry, in which words that were quite ordinary in meaning were replaced by various flowery names associated with them in meaning. This is how shields appeared with the names “Victory Board”, “Network of Spears” (the spear was called the “Shield Fish”), “Tree of Protection” (a direct indication of its functional purpose!), “Sun of War”, “Wall of Hilds” (“ Wall of the Valkyries"), "Land of Arrows", etc.

Next came a helmet with a nosepiece and chain mail with rather short, wide sleeves that did not reach the elbow. But the Vikings’ helmets did not receive such pompous names, although it is known that the helmet of King Adils was called “War Boar”. The helmets had either a conical or hemispherical shape, some of them were equipped with half masks that protected the nose and eyes, and almost every helmet had a simple nosepiece in the form of a rectangular metal plate that went down to the nose. Some helmets had curved eyebrow decoration with silver or copper trim. At the same time, it was customary to paint the surface of the helmet in order to protect it from corrosion and ... “to distinguish friends from strangers.” For the same purpose, a special “combat sign” was painted on it.

The so-called helmet of the “Vendel era” (550 - 793) from a ship burial in Wendel, Upland, Sweden. Exhibited at the History Museum in Stockholm.

The chain mail was called a “shirt of rings,” but just like the shield, it could be given different poetic names, for example, “Blue Shirt,” “Battle Cloth,” “Net of Arrows,” or “Cloak for Combat.” The rings on the Viking chain mail that have survived to this day are made together and overlap each other, like rings for key chains. This technology dramatically accelerated their production, so that chain mail among the “northern people” was not something unusual or too expensive a type of armor. It was looked upon as a "uniform" for a warrior, that's all. Early chain mail had short sleeves and reached to the hips. Longer coats of mail were inconvenient because the Vikings had to row in them. But already in the 11th century, their length, judging by some specimens, increased noticeably. For example, Harald Hardrada's chain mail reached the middle of his calves and was so strong that “nothing could tear it.” However, it is also known that the Vikings often threw off their chain mail because of their weight. For example, this is exactly what they did before the battle at Stamford Bridge in 1066.

Viking helmet from the University Archaeological Museum in Oslo.

The English historian Christopher Gravett, who analyzed many ancient Norse sagas, proved that due to the fact that the Vikings wore chain mail and shields, most of their wounds occurred on their legs. That is, according to the laws of war (if only war has any laws!) blows to the legs with a sword were completely permitted. That is why, probably, one of its most popular names (well, besides such pompous names as “Long and Sharp”, “Odin’s Flame”, “Golden Handle”, and even ... “Damaging the Battlefield”!) was “Nogokus “- the nickname is very eloquent and explains a lot! At the same time, the best blades were delivered to Scandinavia from France, and there, on the spot, local craftsmen attached handles made of walrus bone, horn and metal to them, the latter usually inlaid with gold, silver or copper wire. The blades were usually also inlaid, and could have writing and patterns laid out on them. Their length was approximately 80-90 cm, and both double-edged and single-edged blades, similar to huge kitchen knives, are known. The latter were most common among the Norwegians, while archaeologists have not found swords of this type in Denmark. However, in both cases they were equipped with longitudinal grooves from the tip to the handle to reduce weight. The hilts of Viking swords were very short and literally squeezed the fighter’s hand between the pommel and the crosshair so that it would not move anywhere in battle. The sheath of the sword is always wooden and covered with leather. The insides were also covered with leather, waxed cloth or sheepskin, and lubricated with oil to protect the blade from rust. Usually, the Vikings depict the sword fastening on the belt as vertical, but it is worth noting that the horizontal position of the sword on the belt is more suitable for the oarsman, in all respects it is more convenient for him, especially if he is on board the ship.

Viking sword with the inscription: "Ulfbert". National Museum in Nuremberg.

The Viking needed a sword not only in battle: he had to die with a sword in his hand, only then could he count on getting to Valhalla, where in the gilded chambers, along with the gods, according to Viking beliefs, valiant warriors feasted.

Another similar blade with the same inscription, first half of the 9th century from National Museum in Nuremberg.

In addition, they had several types of axes, spears (skilled spear throwers were highly respected by the Vikings), and, of course, bows and arrows, from which even kings, who were proud of this skill, shot accurately! Interestingly, for some reason axes were given either female names, associated with the names of gods and goddesses (for example, King Olaf had the ax “Hel” named after the goddess of death), or... the names of trolls! But in general, it was enough to put a Viking on a horse so that he would not be inferior to the same Frankish horsemen. That is, chain mail, a helmet and a round shield at that time were quite sufficient means of protection for both the infantryman and the horseman. Moreover, such a weapon system had spread in Europe almost everywhere by the beginning of the 11th century, and chain mail practically replaced armor made of metal scales. Why did it happen? Yes, only because the Hungarians, the last of the Asian nomads who had previously come to Europe, had by this time already settled on the plains of Pannonia and now themselves began to defend it from outside invasions. The threat from mounted archers immediately weakened sharply, and chain mail immediately replaced lamellar armor - more reliable, but also much heavier and not very comfortable to wear. But by this time the crosshairs of swords began to be more and more often bent to the sides, giving them a crescent-shaped side, so that it became more convenient for riders to hold them in their hands, or to lengthen the handle itself, and such changes occurred at that time everywhere and among the most different nations! As a result, from about 900, the swords of European warriors became much more convenient compared to the old swords, but most importantly, their number among horsemen in heavy weapons increased significantly.

Sword from Mammen (Jutland, Denmark). National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen.

At the same time, in order to wield such a sword, a lot of skill was required. After all, they fought with them completely differently from how they show it in our movies. That is, they simply did not fence, but struck rarely, but with all their might, giving importance to the power of each blow, and not their number. They also tried not to hit the sword with the sword, so as not to spoil it, but dodged the blows, or took them on the shield (putting it at an angle) or on the umbon. At the same time, having slipped from the shield, the sword could well wound the enemy in the leg (and this, not to mention specially targeted blows to the legs!), and perhaps this was precisely one of the reasons why the Normans so often called your Nogokus swords!

Stuttgart Psalter. 820-830 Stuttgart. Regional Library of Württemberg. Miniature depicting two Vikings.

Preferring to fight their enemies hand-to-hand, the Vikings, however, also skillfully used bows and arrows, fighting with them both at sea and on land! For example, the Norwegians were considered “famous archers,” and the word “bow” in Sweden sometimes meant the warrior himself. The D-shaped bow found in Ireland measures 73 inches (or 185 cm) long. Up to 40 arrows were carried at the waist in a cylindrical quiver. The arrowheads were made very skillfully and could be either faceted or grooved. As noted here, the Vikings also used several types of axes, as well as the so-called “winged spears” with a crossbar (it did not allow the tip to enter the body too deeply!) and a long faceted tip of a leaf-shaped or triangular shape.

Viking sword hilt. National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen.

As for how the Vikings acted in battle and what techniques they used, we know that the Vikings’ favorite technique was the “shield wall” - a massive phalanx of warriors built in several (five or more) rows, in which the most well-armed stood in front, and those who had worse weapons stood behind. There is much debate about how such a shield wall was built. Modern literature questions the idea that the shields overlapped each other, as this hindered freedom of movement in battle. However, a 10th-century tombstone at Gosforth from Cumbria contains a relief showing shields overlapping across most of their width, narrowing the front line by 18 inches (45.7 cm) for each man, almost half a meter. It also depicts a shield wall and a tapestry from Oseberg in the 9th century. Modern filmmakers and directors of historical scenes, using reproductions of Viking weapons and formations, have noticed that in a close fight, warriors needed quite a lot of space to swing a sword or ax, so such tightly closed shields are nonsense! Therefore, the hypothesis is supported that, perhaps, they were closed only in the initial position in order to repel the very first blow, and then they opened by themselves and the battle turned into a general fight.

Replica of the axe. According to Petersen's typology Type L or Type M, modeled after the Tower of London.

The Vikings did not shy away from unique heraldry: in particular, they had battle banners with images of dragons and monsters. The Christian king Olaf seemed able to have a standard with the image of a cross, but for some reason he preferred the image of a serpent on it. But most Viking flags bore the image of a raven. However, the latter is understandable, since ravens were considered the birds of Odin himself - the main god of Scandinavian mythology, the ruler of all other gods and the god of war, and was most directly associated with battlefields, over which, as you know, ravens always circled.

Viking axe. Docklands Museum, London.

The most famous Viking hatchet, inlaid with silver and gold, is from Mammen (Jutland, Denmark). Third quarter of the 10th century. Kept in the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

The basis of the Vikings' combat formation was the same "pig" as that of the Byzantine horsemen - a wedge-shaped formation with a narrowed front part. It was believed that it was invented by none other than Odin himself, which indicates the significance of this tactic for them. Two warriors stood in the first row, three in the second, five in the third, which gave them the opportunity to fight very harmoniously, both together and individually. The Vikings could also build a shield wall not only frontally, but also in the shape of a ring. This was, for example, done by Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, where his warriors had to cross swords with the warriors of King Harold Godwinson of England: “a long and rather thin line with wings curving back to touch, forming a wide ring to capture the enemy.” The commanders were protected by a separate wall of shields, whose warriors deflected projectiles flying at them. But the Vikings, like any other infantrymen, were inconvenient to fight with cavalry, although even during retreat they knew how to preserve and quickly restore their formations, and gain time.

Viking saddle pommel from the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

The Frankish cavalry (the best at that time in Western Europe) inflicted the first defeat on the Vikings at the Battle of Soukort in 881, where they lost 8-9 thousand people. The defeat came as a surprise to them. Although the Franks could have lost this battle. The fact is that they made a serious tactical mistake by scattering their ranks in pursuit of prey, which gave the Vikings the advantage in the counterattack. But the second onslaught of the Franks again drove the Vikings on foot back, although they, despite the losses, did not lose formation. The Franks were also unable to break through the shield wall bristling with long spears. But they could not do anything when the Franks began to throw spears and javelins. Then the Franks proved the superiority of cavalry over infantry to the Vikings more than once. So the Vikings knew the power of cavalry and had their own riders. But they still didn’t have large cavalry units, since it was difficult for them to transport horses on their ships!

Briefly about Viking weapons

“Lord, deliver us from the wrath of the Vikings and the arrows of the Magyar” - this prayer is still said in Europe
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The Vikings were amazing, magnificent, tireless and remarkable specialists in robbery, organizing criminal gangs, murders by prior conspiracy of two or more persons, as well as extremism, terrorism, mercenarism and insulting the feelings of believers. But as they say, they are not like that - life is like that, back in the 50s of the twentieth century. Norway was a completely poor country, due to crazy problems in the economy from Sweden at the beginning of the twentieth century. 1.3 million Swedes left, all because of hunger and poverty, and what can we say about VIII-X centuries? Not much grows on bare rocks, there are iron ore, which made it possible to develop blacksmithing, stunted sheep breeding and fishing in the harsh waters of the Norwegian, North and Baltic Seas, that’s the whole economy. The same can be applied to the north-west of Rus' and the Baltics, where meager agriculture, hunting and fishing did not allow for a well-fed life, so the influx into the Viking formations did not stop; there were bands that, according to evidence, consisted exclusively of Slavs.

There were much richer neighbors in the south, and on the banks mediterranean sea simply fabulously rich people, naturally in the head of a medieval man, not burdened by any morality and other pseudo-cultural fluff, a logical thought arises - to take it away and give it to his loved one. Because the ships of the Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Icelanders, Balts and Slavs got along perfectly well, arming themselves with whatever they could (mostly clubs, spears and knives) on one fine day for them and terrible for everyone else, living from Egypt to Dublin and from Baghdad before Seville, the Vikings rode their monstrous sea dragons into the sea.

Actually, what is the success of these sea tramps? There were more of them in a certain place at a certain time - the only one main secret any war, there is no need to leaf through Xun Tzu, he did not know about this because there are always and everywhere more Chinese than the enemy, however, this has never helped them. Europe is an extremely sparsely populated place even now, towns and villages are often scattered, but unsociable people a couple of kilometers from each other may not see each other for years. What can we say about the Viking times, when the largest metropolis of Novgorod had 30,000 inhabitants, the large European city of London had a population of 10,000 people, and the average village around the castle had well if 100-150 inhabitants along with a baron, warriors, a faded falcon, dogs and wife.

Therefore, the sudden landing of 20-30 more or less combat-ready, and most importantly well-motivated Vikings, was a crushing blow to the stretched coastal defenses. Moreover, this is not a modern situation, when notification occurs in minutes, and the flight time from Lipetsk to Estonia for the strike group is 42 minutes. Then the villagers could only know by the alarm (if anyone survived) and smoke that an attack had been committed. If the local prince or baron was in place, then some kind of resistance was possible, at least at the level of closing in the tower and waiting, shooting back, until the Vikings left, the villagers did the same, they fled or, having learned about the attack, sat out in the forest farms . There was no unified resistance of the entire village, so even a single detachment of Vikings, understandably limited in number by the number of seats on the drakkar (the huge one took 80 people, and temporarily up to 200), had in front of the baron with 10-15 servants and 3-4 villagers with bows and in best case scenario with scramasaxes or axes overwhelming superiority. Well, like all the marines, they were guided by the motto: “the main thing is to get away in time,” until the detachment of the king or duke arrived. Every Viking is the engine of a longship; if there are too few of them left to row, it’s a disaster. A squadron of 10-20 longships could easily lay siege to London or Ladoga. Regarding TV series and women in Hirdman or blacks - about 50 years ago in Sweden this would have sounded like an excellent joke, women were occasionally rulers, but I don’t remember a single saga about a woman or, especially, a Negro Hirdman, since this is impossible.

Over time, having accumulated wealth and settled their harsh lands, the Vikings got a taste for it and instead of the boring northern summer they had fiery annual sea ​​cruises with the aim of robbing their neighbors, raping them in perverted forms, and killing them if they resist, with preliminary severe torture. In addition to robberies, they gradually began to trade, because they realized that goods valued in Ladoga (wine, Jewelry, swords) are not so expensive in Seville, but in Rome you can sell wax, honey and furs that are inexpensive on the Novgorod market. Like all poor peoples, the Vikings became mercenaries, not only in Slavic, but also Roman lands, their troops were monstrously cruel, poorly controlled and self-willed; in Novgorod there are a lot of laws and documents related to the criminal offenses of the Vikings. Needless to say, when the captains of Rurik, the legendary Askold and Dir, deserted from the army, simply put together an organized crime group and easily captured Kiev, which was completely normal for the Vikings who besieged Paris twice, repeatedly captured London and marched with fire and sword across all lands from the Levant to Lapland.

According to battle tactics, the Vikings were predominantly Marine Corps, that is, they specialized in amphibious landings, which is determined by the northern nature itself with many water arteries. There were no roads as such in those days in the north, so all life took place along rivers, lakes and seas, where the Vikings felt great. The Vikings had horses, the rich Vikings even had war horses, they were transported on longships, but in general small shaggy Viking ponies, not much different from a tall dog, in rocky terrain where there was nowhere to graze, were used as a very auxiliary force. The movement of the Vikings was on a ship, then disembarkation and rapid pedestrian crossings, which is why the type of heavy infantry weapons, which made it possible to move quickly and with a shield formation with spears to resist the small cavalry.

The main weapon of a Viking is a spear, it is cheap, easy to replace, and its use against any other weapon except a halberd is devastating.

The Viking shield is also a weapon - made of boards with glue, with a crossbar for holding, sometimes covered with fabric or leather, with an iron umbon to protect the fist - you can beat with it. There was no shackle, it was made from different types of wood, held in a fist, worn on the back, and transported on board a drakkar.

The Viking ax is a popular weapon - cheap, strong. They were by no means heroic in size - they can also be used perfectly well.

What is called a battle ax is a poleaxe. It was slightly larger than a battle axe, sometimes double-sided.

The war hammer (French samples in the photo) was also by no means of heroic size.

According to the typology, the Viking swords are Carolingian, characteristic of the entire Europe of that time and came out of the Carolingian Empire, which included Germany, France and Italy. The Carolingian type of sword crystallized around the 8th century, at the end of the era of the Great Migration of Peoples, at the beginning of the unification of states Western Europe under the auspices of Charlemagne and his descendants, which explains the name of the type of sword (“belongs to the Carolingian era”).

The Viking sword is a weapon that is mainly a slashing weapon, rarely seen in the saga that someone was stabbed to death. The usual length of a 10th century sword was about 80–90 cm, but a sword 1.2 m long was found in Russia. The blade width was 5–6 cm, thickness 4 mm. Along the blade on both sides of the blade of all Viking swords there are fullers (Fuller), which served to lighten the weight of the blade. The end of the sword, not designed for a piercing blow, had a rather blunt point, and sometimes was even simply rounded. The pommel or apple (Pommel), hilt (Tang) and crosshair of the sword (Guard) on rich swords were decorated with bronze, silver and even gold, but more often, unlike the Slavic Carolingians, Viking swords were rather modestly decorated.

As is usually presented in movies, a certain master forges a sword day and night to heroic music and gives it to the main character, which is completely wrong. Perhaps somewhere in a remote village, a towering blacksmith, who usually forges sickles, scythes and nails, would forge a sword if he had mined a lot of iron somewhere, but the quality of this sword would be low. Another thing was the arms corporations that were engaged in the manufacture of weapons and in particular Carolingian swords on an industrial scale. For some reason, few people know that back in the Stone Age, and certainly in the Bronze Age, in all regions of Europe there were large, even by today’s standards, corporations producing weapons. The division of labor was also characteristic of the production of the Carolingian sword, so the swords were made by several craftsmen, and the corporation put a trademark. It changed over time, the type of inscription changed, fonts changed, rebranding took place, due to illiteracy or other reasons (Albanian language?!) the letters in the inscriptions were turned upside down. For example, in Rus' there were two such corporations: LUDOTA KOVAL and SLAV, as eloquently evidenced by signature swords in museums.

In Scandinavia, apparently, there were smaller corporations that did not put their trademark or did not have the right to do so, but there were many exported swords, although the Carolingian Empire strictly forbade the sale of swords to anyone, but this law was implemented poorly or, judging by the number the findings were not fulfilled at all. A huge arms corporation ULFBERHT operated in Germany, whose swords are simply dotted throughout the Scandinavian countries and Slavic lands, there were other mass signature swords, that is, other corporations also worked, such as CEROLT, ULEN, BENNO, LEUTLRIT, INGELRED.

The so-called signature swords were found throughout Europe; it is clear that the production of swords was put on stream and the arms trade was carried out everywhere. Making a sword in a corporation had the advantage of maximum output at minimum costs and costs with the best quality products. Iron was purchased in bulk at the lowest prices, processed into less critical products, the manufacture of the iron base, which required low-skilled blacksmithing, was carried out by apprentices, and master blacksmiths assembled the blade, which was complex. Master jewelers decorated the sword if it was of appropriate value, or their apprentices stamped a couple of cheap patterns. This approach, by the way, is typical for artists - apprentices write the background, most of the characters, and the master adds the face of the main character or applies a couple of strokes and puts his signature.

The blade consisted of an iron or iron-steel base with hardened blades welded to it, then they learned to cover the iron base with steel plates on top, and later they learned to make a solid blade. The iron base was twisted or chopped and repeatedly forged again to create the so-called welding damascus, known from the 2nd-3rd centuries. This gave the blade, with hard and sharp, but not flexible and brittle blades, the necessary ductility and the ability to bend under load. With the growth of blacksmithing skills, they moved away from the complex technology of damaskine, since the quality of the iron base had already become acceptable and the blades no longer carried the so revered pattern that appears when etching wrought iron.

Swords were worn in wooden or leather sheaths, less often in iron, they could be covered with leather or later with velvet, any material that gave a “barbaric” chic; at that time they loved everything different from the color of linen and raw leather. The colors, both in clothing and in the decoration of weapons, were the brightest possible from available organic dyes, as soon as the warrior became rich - pommels, arrowheads, plaques, brooches and rings sparkled in the sun like a jewelry shop. They wore the sword on a belt or sling, not behind the back, which is inconvenient both when rowing and when hiking, when the shield is thrown behind the back. The scabbard was richly decorated, which is clear from the surviving tips, sometimes made of precious metals. NO ONE HAS NEVER worn a sword in a sheath behind his back - it is impossible to get it out of there.

In addition, the Vikings had the second most popular sword, the sax or scramasax (lat. sax, scramasax) - a long rather than short sword that came from the ancient Germans, but among the Vikings it had a length approximately equal to the Carolingian, up to 90 cm, and a characteristic design of the hilt . The Saxons, by the way, flatter themselves with the hope that their people come from the name of this knife.

The length of the blade of the pan-European Saxon reached half a meter, the thickness was over 5 mm (among the Scandinavians and Slavs it could reach up to 8 mm), the sharpening was one-sided, the end was pointed, the shank was usually asymmetrical, the pommel of the handle was often made in the form of a raven's head. When using the sax, piercing blows were preferred; according to evidence, it pierced good chain mail and leather armor. More often, the sax was used not separately as a sword, but as a large one in everyday life, something like a machete, and together with the sword as a daga (dagger), if the shield was pulled out.

Helmets, like swords, were a status item and not everyone had them. They mainly copy the helmet from Gjormundby (Järmundby), partially preserved and incorrectly assembled in the museum from pieces.

The nasal helmet (Norman, as it is called in Russia) was characteristic of the Slavs and Europe, partly for the Vikings, it is most often used because of its low cost.

Chain mail was an expensive pleasure; they mostly got by leather jackets with bone or iron plates or even went into battle without armor. Chain mail - each ring was riveted together, of course there was no “knitting” - that is, just a ring cut and flattened together).

There were also lamellar armor - especially after service in Byzantium, the so-called “plank armor” - metal plates connected by straps or rings of steel, such as bone, bronze, then iron, steel, from the Bronze Age, in India, among the samurai and Slavs , as well as the Vikings.

The Vikings naturally had bows, crossbows (crossbows) and darts (sulits).

You are on your boat and don’t spend the night in houses:
The enemy can easily hide there.
The Viking is sleeping on his shield, he clutches his sword in his hand,
And only the sky is its roof...
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You are in bad weather and storm, unfurl your sail,
Oh how sweet this moment will be...
Along the waves, along the waves, it’s better to go straight to the forefathers,
Why be a slave to your fears...