Subtropical evergreen forests. Natural zones of Eurasia Subtropical forests and shrubs of Eurasia

Subtropical evergreen forest - a forest common in subtropical zones.

Dense broad-leaved forest with evergreen tree and shrub species.

The subtropical climate of the Mediterranean is dry, precipitation in the form of rain falls in winter, even mild frosts are extremely rare, summers are dry and hot. The subtropical forests of the Mediterranean are dominated by thickets of evergreen shrubs and low trees. Trees stand sparsely, and various herbs and shrubs grow wildly between them. Junipers, noble laurel, strawberry trees that shed their bark annually, wild olives, delicate myrtle, and roses grow here. These types of forests are characteristic mainly in the Mediterranean, and in the mountains of the tropics and subtropics.

The subtropics on the eastern edges of the continents are characterized by a more humid climate. Atmospheric precipitation falls unevenly, but there is more rain in the summer, that is, at a time when vegetation especially needs moisture. Dense humid forests of evergreen oaks, magnolias, and camphor laurel predominate here. Numerous lianas, thickets of tall bamboos and various shrubs enhance the uniqueness of the humid subtropical forest.

Subtropical forest differs from humid tropical forests in lower species diversity, a decrease in the number of epiphytes and lianas, as well as the appearance of coniferous and tree ferns in the forest stand.

For subtropical zone characterized by a wide variety of climatic conditions, expressed in the peculiarities of moisture in the western, inland and eastern sectors. The western sector of the continent has a Mediterranean type of climate, the uniqueness of which lies in the discrepancy between the wet and warm periods. The average annual precipitation on the plains is 300-400 mm (in the mountains up to 3000 mm), the majority of which falls in winter. Winter is warm, the average temperature in January is not lower than 4 C. Summer is hot and dry, the average temperature in July is above 19 C. Under these conditions, Mediterranean hard-leaved plant communities have formed on brown soils. In the mountains, brown soils give way to brown forest soils.

The main area of ​​distribution of hard-leaved forests and shrubs in the subtropical zone of Eurasia is the Mediterranean territory, developed by ancient civilizations. Grazing by goats and sheep, fires and land exploitation have led to the almost complete destruction of natural vegetation cover and soil erosion. Climax communities here were represented by evergreen hard-leaved forests dominated by the oak genus. In the western part of the Mediterranean, with sufficient rainfall on various parent rocks, a common species was sclerophyte holm oak up to 20 m high. The shrub layer included low-growing trees and shrubs: boxwood, strawberry tree, phyllyria, evergreen viburnum, pistachio and many others. The grass and moss cover was sparse. Cork oak forests grew on very poor acidic soils. In eastern Greece and on the Anatolian coast of the Mediterranean Sea, holm oak forests were replaced by kermes oak forests. In warmer parts of the Mediterranean, oak stands were replaced by stands of wild olive (wild olive tree), pistachio lentiscus and ceratonia. The mountainous regions were characterized by forests of European fir, cedar (Lebanon), and black pine. On sandy soils pine trees (Italian, Aleppo and seaside) grew on the plains. As a result of deforestation, various shrub communities have long arisen in the Mediterranean. The first stage of forest degradation is apparently represented by a maquis shrub community with isolated trees resistant to fires and deforestation. Its species composition is formed by a variety of shrubby plants of the undergrowth of degraded oak forests: various types of erica, cistus, strawberry tree, myrtle, pistachio, wild olive, carob tree, etc. The shrubs are often intertwined with climbing, often thorny plants sarsaparilla, multi-colored blackberry, evergreen rose, etc. The abundance of thorny and climbing plants makes the maquis difficult to pass. In place of the reduced maquis, the formation of a garigue community of low-growing shrubs, subshrubs and xerophilic herbaceous plants develops. Low-growing (up to 1.5 m) thickets of kermes oak dominate, which are not eaten by livestock and quickly occupy new territories after fires and logging. The families of Lamiaceae, legumes and Rosaceae, which produce essential oils, are abundantly represented in garigi. Typical plants include pistachio, juniper, lavender, sage, thyme, rosemary, cistus, etc. Gariga has various local names, for example, in Spain, tomillaria. The next formation formed on the site of the degraded maquis is freegan, the vegetation cover of which is extremely sparse. Often these are rocky wastelands. Gradually, all plants eaten by livestock disappear from the vegetation cover; for this reason, geophytes (asphodelus), poisonous (euphorbia) and prickly (astragalus, Asteraceae) plants predominate in the composition of freegana. In the lower zone of the Mediterranean mountains, including western Transcaucasia, subtropical evergreen laurel, or laurel-leaved, forests, named after the predominant species of various types of laurel, are common.

A natural zone is a vast territory with a certain type of climate, which corresponds to the internal waters of the soil, vegetation and fauna. The nature of the natural zone is determined by the climate; it gets its name from the type of vegetation cover. Natural zoning is called a natural change in natural zones by latitude or longitude. The distribution of continental vegetation is controlled by two climate factors: heat and moisture. Both heat and moisture may be in short supply. Typically, vegetation and soil cover are controlled by whichever factor is more scarce in a given region. Within Eurasia, three large parts can be distinguished, with different types of influence of these factors. In the northern part of the continent, heat is in short supply. There is excess moisture everywhere. As a result, the distribution of natural zones does not depend on the amount of moisture, but is subject to the distribution of heat. Thus, arctic tundras occupy spaces where average July temperatures vary from 0° to +5°C, typical tundras between isotherms +5° and + 10°, taiga between July isotherms +10° and +17 +18°. Each of these zones stretches across the entire continent from its western coast to the eastern. The length of the taiga is especially impressive: it stretches from the Scandinavian mountains to the Okhotsk coast and Kamchatka.

In the southern part of the continent, on the contrary, heat is not scarce. Moisture is scarce. It is the factor that determines the distribution of vegetation cover. Depending on the incoming annual precipitation (GPR), vegetation zones are distributed as follows:

over 1500 mm - evergreen (humid) tropical forests;

1500 - 1000 mm - semi-deciduous forests and wet savannas;

1000-500 mm - deciduous (dry) forests and typical savannas;

500 - 200 mm - deserted savannas and thorny trees;

200 - 50 mm - semi-deserts;

less than 50 mm - deserts.

At the same time, evergreen forests can grow in the equatorial, subequatorial and tropical zones, and savannas and tropical dry forests - in the subequatorial and tropical zones. In the middle latitudes, i.e. in the subtropical and most of temperate zone, the relationship between vegetation cover and climate becomes more complex nature: its distribution depends on both factors: the amount of heat and the amount of moisture. Warmth in mid-latitudes increases from north to south, and natural zones change in the same direction. However, from the western and eastern coasts inland the amount of moisture decreases, and with distance from the coast there is also a change in natural zones. So, along the parallel 45° N. w. in the direction from Atlantic Ocean broad-leaved forests - forest-steppes - steppes - semi-deserts - deserts are replaced, and then, as they approach the Pacific Ocean, back from deserts to broad-leaved forests of the east coast. Steppes, semi-deserts and mid-latitude deserts nowhere reach the shores of the oceans; these are inland zones.

Thus, there are three types of latitudinal zonality that correspond to three longitudinal sectors of the continent: western oceanic, eastern oceanic and central continental. The western oceanic sector in Europe includes zones of arctic and typical tundra, forest-tundra, mixed, deciduous forests, dry xerophytic forests and shrubs of Middle-earth. If West Africa can be considered a continuation of the landmass of Europe, further to the south there are semi-deserts, deserts, again semi-deserts, savannas and tropical rainforests. The eastern oceanic sector in its northern part begins the same way, but in the tropics deserts and savannas do not reach the ocean: in the east of the continent the zonation is tundra-forest: tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, mixed and deciduous forests, subtropical evergreen forests, tropical evergreen forests to the Equator . The central continental sector is represented by tundras, forest-tundras, taiga, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts, deserts of temperate, subtropical, tropical zones, savannas and tropical rainforests - this is the zonation if you move south through the West Siberian and Turanian plains, the Iranian Plateau, the north west of the Indo-Gangetic lowland, Hindustan, Sri Lanka. A similar sectorial pattern of zonal cover is characteristic of other regions of the Earth. a brief description of natural zones of Eurasia is like this.

Wet evergreen forests. The climate is equatorial or subequatorial humid, with annual precipitation exceeding 1500 mm, with a dry season lasting no more than 2 months. These forests are divided into two subzones: constantly wet and variable wet. Constantly wet forests are characteristic of the equatorial belt; the growing season in them occurs evenly throughout the year; flowering and fruiting of trees and shrubs does not occur simultaneously: in the forest you can always find both flowering and fruiting trees. There are no seasons in this forest. In a variable wet forest there is seasonality: during the short dry season the growing season is interrupted, flowering usually occurs with the beginning of the rainy season. By the beginning of the next dry season, fruiting ends. But the trees do not shed their leaves, since there is a sufficient supply of moisture in the soil, in a short time dry time it does not have time to be used up. The main types of trees in both subzones are the same: huge dipterocarpus, giant ficus, palm trees, pandanus, etc. However, in a permanently humid forest there are more lianas, and they reach very large sizes in it. Thus, the rattan palm is a liana up to 300 m long. There are almost no epiphytes in the variable-humid forest; during the dry season, their aerial roots dry out. Deciduous trees in the upper tier may also appear in this forest. The soils of humid forests are red and yellow ferallitic, often podzolized. They are composed of hydroxides of aluminum, iron and manganese; the color depends on the combination of these compounds. Animals of the humid forest live mainly in trees, since it is dark under the forest canopy, there is no grass, and the branches with leaves are high. Numerous primates (monkeys and prosimians) live in the branches of trees, cats and leopards, snakes, lizards, some species of frogs, worms, caterpillars, insects, and birds climb. Butterflies and birds amaze with their bright colors and size. Such forests are preserved in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Malacca, on the slopes of the Western Ghats, in Assam (along the Brahmaputra), on the shores of Indochina. Cutting down these forests for the purpose of plowing the land is not always possible: podzolized ferrallite soils quickly lose fertility and have to be abandoned. Currently, Fr. has lost its forests. Java: its soils are formed on volcanic rocks, are distinguished by high natural fertility and are fully developed and produce 2-3 harvests per year with an abundance of heat and moisture. The forest reserves protect rich flora and rare animals: primates, tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, wild buffalos, wild bulls, deer, tapirs, etc.

Dry forests and savannas. Deciduous tropical forests are called dry. They are characteristic of the interior regions of Hindustan and Indochina, where less than 1500 mm of precipitation falls per year and the duration of the dry season exceeds 2 months. In practice, the transition from evergreen moist forests to deciduous forests occurs gradually. First, semi-deciduous forests with an upper deciduous layer and an evergreen lower layer appear; the evergreen undergrowth gradually disappears. The main trees of deciduous forests are the teak tree from the verbena family and the sal tree from the dipterocarp family. They provide valuable construction and ornamental wood. In the driest places, grass savannas with terminalia, acacias, and a cover of tropical cereal plants (imperata, wild sugar cane, bearded grass) are common. The soils in savannas are brown-red and brown-red, somewhat more fertile than the soils of humid forests due to their humus content. On the basaltic lavas of the north-west of Hindustan, special black soils are formed; they are often called cotton soils for the high yield of cotton grown on them. Animal world savannas and woodlands are rich: a variety of monkeys, locally preserved elephants and rhinoceroses, nilgai antelopes, buffalos. Savannah is characterized primarily by terrestrial animals due to the abundance of grasses and low trees and shrubs. Even some birds in the savannas prefer not to fly, but to run: in India and Indochina, the homeland of chickens, wild “weed” chickens are still found. There are many pheasants, peacocks are birds of the gallinaceae order. Reptiles are abundant in savannas and woodlands. On the Ganges Plain, in a number of regions of Hindustan and Indochina, the lands of this zone have been developed and cultivated for a long time, especially the flooded lands of the alluvial plains.

Deserts and semi-deserts. Characteristic of dry areas of the tropical, subtropical and temperate zones, where annual precipitation does not exceed 200 mm. Desert soils are underdeveloped, regardless of the climatic zone of gray soil and brown soil; their color is determined by compounds of iron and manganese. Tropical deserts occupy the south of Arabia (Rub al-Khali), the lower reaches of the Indus - the Sind Desert and the north-west of Hindustan - the Thar Desert. They are characterized by a sparse grass cover of aristida (wire grass) and rare acacia bushes, similar to the Sahara deserts. Typical animals of these deserts are addax antelopes and oryx. In the oases, the date palm and long-staple cotton are cultivated, producing fiber of the highest quality. The subtropical deserts are the Syrian, Greater and Lesser Nefud in Arabia, and Dashte Kavir and Dashte Lut on the Iranian Plateau. Typical trees are saxauls, tamarix shrubs, and evergreen cushion-shaped subshrubs in rocky areas. Of the desert cereals, seline is close to aristida, perfectly fixing moving sands. Temperate deserts are characteristic of the Turan Lowland, Taklamakan and Gobi. Evergreen shrubs disappear and deciduous shrubs predominate. The dominant herbs are wormwood, fescue, and sometimes seline.

Xerophytic forests and shrubs Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean climate, special brown soils with a significant humus content and high natural fertility are formed. In relief depressions, semi-hydromorphic dark-colored soils are common. In Yugoslavia they are called smolnitsa. Clay composition, very high dry density, and richness in humus are their characteristic features. Vegetation in climates with dry, hot summers is characterized by xerophytic adaptations: a powerful root system, high root suction capacity (turgor), small leaf blade, hard skin or pubescence on the leaves, and the secretion of essential oils. Depending on the distribution of precipitation, 4 types of formations are distinguished: hard-leaved forests, maquis, freegans and shiblyak. Hard-leaved forests are characteristic of the western shores of the peninsulas, which receive the greatest amount of precipitation. The forests consist of southern coniferous and evergreen deciduous trees. Conifers include subtropical pines: Italian pine, seaside and Aleppo pines, Lebanese and Cypriot cedars, tree-like junipers, cypresses. Of the evergreen trees, first of all are evergreen oaks with small, hard leaves: cork in the western and holm in the eastern Middle-earth. Forests are usually cut down. They were replaced by plantations of grapes, citrus and olive trees; in other cases, the lands were abandoned and overgrown with tall bushes. These thickets of evergreen large and dense shrubs are called maquis. The main species in them are: strawberry tree, noble laurel, wild olive (olive), etc. In drier places in the interior and eastern shores of the peninsulas, thickets of low-trunked sparse shrubs - freegan or garrigue - are common. Low, often cushion-shaped bushes dominate: cistus, burnet, etc. In the south of the Iberian Peninsula and in Sicily, the low-growing chamerops palm grows - the only wild palm in Europe. In the driest places of the eastern Middle-earth, along with evergreens, there are deciduous shrubs: sumac, orchard tree, lilac, wild rose. Such thickets are called shiblyak. The fauna of Middle-earth differs from the temperate zone in the following species: wild goats and wild sheep - the ancestors of domestic goats and sheep - have been preserved here. There are rabbits. From southern predators Genetta belongs to the civet family. Southern birds appear: pheasants, blue magpie. In the south of the Iberian Peninsula lives the only small monkey in Europe - the tailless macaque.

Mesophytic subtropical forests The humid subtropics of China and Japan consist of both deciduous and evergreen trees. However, these forests were preserved only in the form of sacred groves at Buddhist temples. Ancient plant species were discovered in them: ginkgo, metasequoia. Among the coniferous trees there are various types of pines, cryptomeria, cunningamia, false larch, etc. Among the deciduous trees there are laurels, cinnamon and camphor trees, magnolias, tulip trees, wild tea bushes, etc. The humid subtropical forests are dominated by yellow soils and red soils, sometimes podzolized. On the non-terraced slopes of the mountains they are busy planting tea bushes, tung trees, citrus trees, apple trees, etc. On the terraced slopes and on the floodplains of rivers they grow rice, cotton, soybeans, and kaoliang. In the mountains of Japan, forests of coniferous and deciduous trees, with evergreen undergrowth. Numerous animals live in the forests of Japan: Japanese macaques, sika deer, etc.

Broadleaf forests characteristic of the humid temperate climate of Western Europe and the Yellow River basin. The main representatives of forest species: beech and oak. Along with them, chestnut grows near the Atlantic, and in more continental areas - hornbeam, elm, maple, etc. The soils under such forests in climates with mild winters are brown forest, and in frosty winters - gray forest. They are distinguished by a high humus content, but a small amount of mineral salts. They respond well to the application of mineral fertilizers and produce high yields when cultivated. For this reason, these forests have practically not been preserved.

Mixed or coniferous-deciduous forests. The main forest-forming species in them are spruce and deciduous oaks, as well as their numerous companions: European cedar pine, fir, yew, ash, linden, maple, elm, and beech. These forests are characterized by herbaceous deciduous vines (hops) and deciduous undergrowth. The soils are gray forest and soddy-podzolic, somewhat less fertile than under deciduous forests. These forests are somewhat better preserved and are found on the German-Polish Plain, in Belarus, Northern Ukraine, and Central Russia. The remaining large animals are bison, wild boars are becoming numerous, red deer, roe deer, and forest cats are found. Along with them there are animals common to the taiga zone: squirrels, hares, foxes, wolves, sometimes moose, bears. In Northeast China and Primorye, tigers and Himalayan bears and sika deer live in these forests. The forests of the Far East are distinguished by their diverse species composition. The climate of European forests is transitional from maritime to continental and continental; in the Far East there is a moderate monsoon climate.

Taiga in Foreign Europe it occupies Fennoscandia - the plains of Finland and Sweden, and rises to the eastern slopes of the Scandinavian mountains. The main forest-forming species is European pine. The soils are often rocky, soddy-podzolic and podzolic; there are few lands suitable for ploughing; forestry and hunting predominate. There are typical taiga animals: wolves, foxes, hares, moose, bears, martens, and birds - wood grouse and black grouse. The climate is moderately cold, continental type, and is not very favorable for agriculture, which is of a focal nature.

Tundra occupies the north of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the mountain tundra occupies the summit part of the Scandinavian Mountains. The climate of the zone is subarctic, or the climate of the mountains is a moderate-cold zone. Typical tundra vegetation. On high rocky and sandy places there is deer lichen with lingonberries and wild rosemary. Sedges, cotton grass, blueberries, cranberries, and cloudberries grow in damp marshy lowlands. Typical of animals reindeer, white hare, lemmings, arctic foxes. Farming in the tundra is impossible; the inhabitants' occupations are hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding. The soils are underdeveloped, gley and peat-gley. Permafrost is widespread.

Review questions

1. What factors determine (limit) the distribution of vegetation cover in

within Eurasia?

2 Describe the geographical distribution of the continent’s natural areas.

3. Why are forest types of vegetation more often located on the periphery of the continent? Compare the species composition of vegetation on the western and eastern edges of the temperate zone of Eurasia? What are their similarities and differences?

4. Which natural area is located in the south of Europe and occupies the peninsulas of the Mediterranean Sea? This climate is characterized by sufficient moisture, but plants have pronounced adaptations to lack of moisture. Why?

5. Which natural areas are most changed by human economic activity?

Question No. 7 Plant cover and fauna of continents
Australia.

vegetation.

The flora of Australia is so different from the floras of other parts of the land that this continent, together with Tasmania, is classified as a special Australian floristic kingdom. Oceania belongs to different regions of the Paleotropical Kingdom. However, the proximity of Australia and most of the large islands of Oceania and the existence of land connections between them during the period of formation of modern flora led to the fact that the vegetation cover of Australia and some islands of Oceania has many common elements.

The dominant types of vegetation in Australia are turfgrass steppes, eucalyptus woodlands, and acathic forests. The five largest non-forest vegetation types by area are steppes, shrubs, scrublands and savannas. Over the past 200 years, eucalyptus woodlands have reduced their area the most due to anthropogenic pressure. Other vegetation types that have declined are woodlands and mallee scrubs, eucalyptus bleached woodlands and acacia woodlands and woodlands. Vegetation types occupying the smallest area (less than 2% all together) are rain forests and lianniks, tall eucalyptus light forests, forests and open woodlands or cypress pine, closed low-growing forests and closed tall shrubs, mangroves, low eucalyptus open forests.

Animal world.

Along with the similarities in the fauna of Australia and the Pacific Islands, there are large differences, which give rise to the identification of subregions: Australian, including the mainland and Tasmania, New Guinea, New Zealand and Polynesian.

The fauna of Australia and the mainland islands of Oceania, especially New Zealand, is characterized by poverty, antiquity and endemism and has a pronounced relict character. Thus, in the fauna of Australia there are only 235 species of mammals, 720 of birds, 420 of reptiles, 120 of amphibians. Moreover, 90% of vertebrate species on the mainland are endemic. In New Zealand, there are no mammals in the wild fauna at all, and 93% of bird species are not found anywhere except in this area.

Many monotremes (where they shit from there and give birth) (platypus, echidna) and marsupials over 150 species, predatory marsupials, marsupial anteaters, marsupial moles, couscous, wombat, kangaroo, etc.

Tropical and subtropical rainforests. characterized by a variety of climbing animals (koala). Along the rivers there are platypus. birds of paradise, various parrots, honey suckers, cassowaries. The ponds are home to Australian crocodiles and turtles. Amphibians are represented by tree frogs.

In wet forests in the north and east of the continent there are many arthropods: endemic ants, butterflies and beetles. Australian earthworms reaching several meters in length.

savannas, bushland and open spaces. kangaroos, dingo dogs,

In areas with grass and shrubs Marsupial rodents and insectivores also live: wombat, rat, mole, anteater.

There are a variety of snakes and lizards. Among snakes, poisonous ones predominate.

Fauna of Tasmania differs in some features. For example, two representatives of marsupials that were not found on the mainland survived for a long time - marsupial devil(Sarcophilus harrisii) and marsupial wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus). And if the marsupial devil is currently quite common on the island, the marsupial wolf is considered completely exterminated. In the southern part of the island you can see typical representatives of the Antarctic fauna - penguins.

New Zealand.- the oldest modern fauna . A feature of the island fauna is the absence of mammals and a very wide variety of birds, many of which lead a terrestrial lifestyle, as if taking on the functions of mammals. The avifauna of New Zealand is distinguished by the presence of representatives of the ancient order of wingless birds: kiwi (Apteryx australis), owls, parrots, etc.

Vegetation.

Africa is located within three floristic kingdoms. Its northern regions, including the Sahara, belong to the Holarctic, the main part of the continent south of the Sahara belongs to the Paleotropical, South part continent, south of the Orange River, forms an independent Cape floristic kingdom.

Over 50 thousand grow on the continent. known species plants. The formation of the flora of northern Africa occurred simultaneously with the formation of the flora of Southern Europe and Western Asia. It finally developed in high latitudes under the influence of post-glacial climate fluctuations. The flora of the Paleotropical kingdom within the continent is much more ancient, and its composition is reflected in the connection with other continents that were part of Gondwana.

The only elements common to Australia are tree ferns and some proteaceae.

Communication with South America and Asia was interrupted much later, and in the flora of Africa there are a significant number of genera and families of angiosperms, or flowering plants, common to these continents and parts of the world.

In South Africa, semi-deserts are characterized by succulent plants: aloe, euphorbia, watermelons with watery fruits, which often replace water for the local population and livestock. Prickly cushion-shaped plants and various herbs with powerful rhizomes or tubers, blooming brightly during the short rainy period (irises, lilies, amaryllis), are also widespread. As in the north, there are areas of cereal-shrub semi-deserts.

Semi-deserts give way to deserts, which occupy especially large areas in the north of the continent. In the southern hemisphere, deserts stretch in the form of a narrow strip along the western edge of the continent; they are partly characteristic of the southern Kalahari. Desert soils are primitive, skeletal, sometimes shifting sands without a clearly defined structure. There are large areas of saline soils.

In the deserts of the northern hemisphere, the vegetation is partially similar to that of Asian deserts. After the rains, ephemerals appear, which short period They have time to germinate, produce flowers and fruits and again go into a dormant state, which can last for more than one year in anticipation of the next rain.

In sandy areas there are such perennial thorny shrubs as camel thorn (Alhagi maurorum), retam (Retam retam), etc. The rocky desert is characterized by lichens that cover the surface of the stones with a continuous crust. In saline areas, wormwood and solyanka are found. In the deserts of northern Africa, as in Arabia, there are many oases, the main plant of which is the date palm.

The island of Madagascar differs floristically from the mainland. In terms of flora composition, it occupies a position transitional from Africa to Asia, and has many endemic species (approximately 75%). As precipitation decreases from the northeast to the southwest, the vegetation cover of Madagascar also changes: tropical rainforests predominate on the east coast and eastern slopes of the mountains, which to the west are replaced by savanna and open forest, and on the plateau of the southwest by dry shrubby steppe.

Animal.

There are 1 thousand species of mammals and 1.5 thousand species of birds. The northern part of the continent, together with the Sahara, belongs to the Mediterranean subregion of the Holarctic zoogeographical region, the rest to the Ethiopian region

However, there are no sharp zoogeographic boundaries on the mainland, and differences in the fauna of individual regions of Africa depend mainly on modern landscape differences. The fauna of the northern part of the continent is in many respects close to the fauna of Southern Europe and Western Asia.

In the savannas with their huge food resources, there are many herbivores, especially antelopes, of which there are more than 40 species. Giraffes, zebras, African elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, lions. Hyenas, jackals, leopards, cheetahs, caracals, servals are common. In the lowland and mountain steppes and savannas there are many monkeys belonging to the group of baboons: real Raigo baboons, geladas, mandrills. Rodents: mice, several types of squirrels.

birds: African ostriches, guinea fowl, marabou, weavers, the secretary bird, which feeds on snakes, is very interesting. Lapwings, herons, and pelicans nest near ponds. Many different lizards and snakes, land turtles, chameleons, crocodiles. Also termites and the tsetse fly.

Tropical rainforests. okapi, antelope, water deer, wild boar, buffalo, hippopotamus. Predators are represented by wild cats, leopards, jackals and civets. The most common rodents are the brush-tailed porcupine and the broad-tailed flying squirrel. There are numerous monkeys, baboons, mandrills, champagnezes, and gorillas. several species of parrots, banana eaters, beautifully feathered and brightly colored wood hoopoes, tiny sunbirds, African peacocks, etc.

Deserts and semi-deserts. Buffalo, antelope, zebra.

fauna of Madagascar with an abundance of endemic forms in the complete absence of groups of animals common in Africa, such as true monkeys, top predators and poisonous snakes. Madagascar is characterized by lemurs, represented by many genera and species and widespread throughout the island, since the local population does not exterminate them, some are even domesticated. Among the predators there are only civets. There are many insectivores, among which tenrecs are endemic.

Humans cause great harm. About 3 thousand protected areas.

North America

Vegetation.

The larger, northern part of the continent is included within the Holarctic floristic kingdom, the smaller, southern part, including all of Mexico and the extreme south of the USA, belongs to the Neotropical kingdom (Fig. 60). If in the history of development and composition of the flora of the northern part of the continent there is an indisputable connection with Eurasia, then the southern part is close to South America.

From the end of the Cretaceous to the end of the Paleogene, temperate and subtropical flora, close to the flora of northeast Asia, dominated on the mainland.

Most of Greenland, central Ellesmere Island and parts of Baffin Island are covered continental ice and are therefore devoid of soil and vegetation.

A significant part of the islands of the Arctic archipelago, the ice-free outskirts of Greenland and the north of the mainland, including Northern Alaska, the coast of Hudson Bay, the northern part of Labrador and Newfoundland, are occupied by tundra

In the northern part it predominates arctic tundra with moss-lichen vegetation and polygonal soils. The southern tundra is characterized by a grass cover of sedges and grasses, as well as dwarf tree species: birch (Betula glandulosa), willow, alder, creeping heather - on typical tundra-gley soils. An abundance of peat bogs is also characteristic.

forest-tundra reaches its greatest width west of Hudson Bay. Woody vegetation appears in it. Here, at the northern limit of its distribution, it is represented by black and white spruce and larch.

In Alaska, as well as on the Scandinavian Peninsula, lowland tundra is directly replaced on mountain slopes by char vegetation and mountain tundra.

East of the Cordillera southern border coniferous forests rises sharply north to 54-55° N, and then descends south to the Great Lakes and the lower reaches of the St. Lawrence River. Over a vast area from the coast of Labrador to the eastern slopes of the Alaska mountains, coniferous forests are characterized by great uniformity of species composition.

The eastern, or so-called Hudson, taiga is characterized by the proliferation of tall, powerful coniferous trees, represented by endemic American species: white spruce, American larch, Banks pine, which is also called stone, or black, balsam fir, which produces Canada balsam - a valuable resinous substance used in technology.

The most characteristic deciduous tree species in coniferous forests are paper birch with smooth white bark, balsam poplar), aspen. The understory is characterized by a variety of berry bushes: red and black currants, raspberries and blueberries. The soil surface is covered with mosses and lichens.

Pacific coast both in appearance and composition they differ sharply from the forests of the east of the mainland. In the east there are many genera of woody vegetation common to Europe; in the west, endemic conifer species and genera common to the eastern regions of Asia predominate.

South moisture-loving coniferous forests of the Pacific coast extend to almost 40° north latitude. They consist of yellow pine, which predominates in the driest areas, Douglas fir, black fir, sugar pine, and incense cedar, redwood.

In mixed forests North America Many broad-leaved trees grow along with conifers. Of the conifers, the most characteristic is white, or Weymouth, pine.

In Appalachian The forests are dominated by broad-leaved tree species, common to some European or East Asian genera, and many ancient relict endemic species are also found. Oaks, chestnuts, ivy, grapes,

In the southern parts of the Mississippi and the Atlantic lowlands, as well as in northern Florida, evergreen subtropical forests are common. The composition of these forests varies depending on soil and ground conditions. On light red earth soils grow forests of subtropical pine species and evergreen forests of oak, magnolia and beech with many vines and epiphytes. In drier places there are thickets of the American dwarf palm Sabal lesser.

To the west, the prairies give way to typical and dry steppes. Bison grass, thickets of thorny bushes.

southwestern outskirts The vegetation cover is represented by xerophytic forests and bushes. The forests are dominated by pine and juniper trees.

A significant part of domestic Cordillera plateaus, Northern Mexico-cacti

Central America together with the islands of the Caribbean Sea, it belongs to the Neotropical floristic kingdom. covered with moist evergreen forests on red-yellow soils. These forests contain many palm trees, evergreen oaks, tree ferns, cycads, etc. There are also numerous lianas and epiphytes from the families of ferns, orchids and bromeliads.

Animal world.

In the north, in the tundra zone, there are polar bears and reindeer. Among the latter are caribou, which are known for their ability to swim and go far to the south. In the taiga zone the fauna is richer. Martens, weasels, minks, moose, wolves, lynxes, Canadian beaver, muskrat, black and brown bears live here. The wolverine, a predatory mammal of the mustelid family, also lives here. Among the special North American animals is the porcupine, a porcupine that lives in trees.

In extensive forest areas You can find both animals typical of Eurasia, for example, wolves and foxes, and special species: red lynx, black-footed ferret, grizzly bears, marsupial rats, opossums.

In the forest-steppes, American bison are found - relatives of European bison, which are divided into forest bison and steppe bison. Another symbol of the prairies is the pronghorn antelope. Steppe wolves and coyotes also live here, and steppe sheep live in the mountains.

In the south of North America, in semi-desert and desert zones, several species of rattlesnakes live. The humid tropics are home to alligators and alligator turtles, as well as huge bullfrogs. In the skies you can see a bird of prey - the red-tailed buzzard, and on the warm coast of Florida - roseate spoonbills, reminiscent of herons.

South America

Vegetation.

Most of South America, up to 40° S, together with Central America and Mexico forms the Neotropical floristic kingdom. The southern part of the continent is part of the Antarctic Kingdom

The flora of eastern South America is much older than the flora of the Andes. The formation of the latter occurred gradually, as the mountain system itself emerged, partly from elements of the ancient tropical flora of the east, and to a large extent from elements penetrating from the south, from the Antarctic region, and from the north, from the North American Cordillera. Therefore, there are large species differences between the flora of the Andes and the Extra-Andean East.

Homeland of potatoes. The Andes are the birthplace of tomatoes, beans, and pumpkins. Corn. South America is also home to the most valuable rubber plants - hevea, chocolate, cinchona, cassava and many other plants grown in the tropical regions of the Earth.

Hylaea (tropical rainforests) The upper layers of these forests are formed by palm trees. Chocolate trees.

Tropical forest lianas, epiphytes (growing on other plants)

The extreme southeast of the Brazilian Highlands, which receives abundant rainfall throughout the year, is covered with subtropical Araucaria forests with an understory of various shrubs, including Paraguayan tea.

In the extreme southwest of the continent, with its oceanic climate, slight annual differences in temperature and abundance of precipitation, moisture-loving evergreen subantarctic forests grow, multi-layered and very diverse in composition. They are close to tropical forests in terms of the richness and diversity of plant life forms and the complexity of the structure of the forest canopy. They abound in lianas, mosses, and lichens. Along with various tall coniferous trees, evergreen deciduous trees are common, for example, southern beeches, magnolias, etc. There are many ferns and bamboos in the undergrowth.

Animal world.

The modern fauna, like the flora of the mainland, was formed starting from the end of the Cretaceous period in conditions of isolation and little changing climate. This is related to the antiquity of the fauna and the presence in its composition large number endemic forms. In addition, there are some common features of the fauna of South America and other continents of the southern hemisphere, which indicates long-standing connections between them. An example is the marsupials, which survive only in South America and Australia.

The tropical forests of South America are inhabited by American (broad-nosed) monkeys, sloths, and anteaters. ocelots, small jaguarundis, and large and strong jaguars. Of the predators belonging to the canine family, the little-studied forest or bush dog, living in the tropical forests of Brazil, Suriname and Guyana, is interesting. Forest animals that hunt in trees include nosukhi.

Ungulates: tapir, black peccary pig and small South American horned deer.

Several species of marsupial rats, or opossums, live in the forests of South and Central America. Among the reptiles, the water boa anaconda (Eunectes murinus) and the arboreal dog-headed boa (Corallus caninus) stand out. A bunch of poisonous snakes, lizards. There are crocodiles in the rivers. Of the amphibians, there are many frogs, some of them lead an arboreal lifestyle.

Macaws, hummingbirds

Andes. Llamas, spectacled bear, chinchillas, condor,

Eurasia

Vegetable world

In view of the enormous size of Eurasia and the large differences in the soils and vegetation of its different regions, it is advisable to consider the characteristics of the soil and vegetation cover separately for each of the ocean sectors and for internal parts mainland.

Western, Atlantic sector, corresponding mainly to the west of Europe.

In the ice-free spaces of the polar archipelago of Spitsbergen, it is widespread arctic tundra, the vegetation of which consists of mosses, lichens and perennial low-growing grasses that do not form a continuous cover: saxifrage, polar poppy, and some grasses.

Typical tundra with dwarf birch trees and berry bushes on slightly podzolic or peat-gley soils are found in the north of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland, and to the east - in the north of the European territory of Russia and in Siberia. In foreign Europe, typical flat tundras are not widespread due to climate conditions caused by the influence of the warm North Atlantic Current. At those latitudes where tundras dominate in Eastern Europe, forest-tundras or even forests are common in the west.

The tundras, disappearing on the plains, move into the mountainous regions of Scandinavia and Iceland, where they form a belt mountain tundra.

For a narrow band forest-tundra Characterized by groves of gnarled birches and alders that appear against a backdrop of tundra vegetation. Plain forest-tundra in Western Europe common in Iceland, Scandinavia and especially Finland.

The most important type of zonal vegetation of the temperate zone of Eurasia is coniferous forests. They occupy large areas in foreign Europe, on the European territory of Russia and in Siberia. Depending on the origin, geographical location and modern natural conditions, the composition of forests and the types of soils formed under them are different, so talking about a single zone of coniferous forests in Eurasia is possible only with a very large generalization.

In foreign Europe it is covered with coniferous forests most of Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland. They occupy plains and move to the slopes of the Scandinavian mountains, rising in the north to a height of 400-500 m, in the south - about 900 m. A continuous cover of coniferous forests exists in the north of Europe to approximately latitude 61°, and to the south broad-leaved species appear in the forests. The main coniferous trees of these forests are Norway spruce and Scots pine. In the more eastern regions of Sweden, spruce and pine are distributed approximately equally, although they do not form mixed stands, while in Finland pine dominates. This is due to a decrease in precipitation and an increase in continental climate from west to east.

Common under coniferous forests podzolic soils.

Around the 60th parallel, deciduous trees (primarily oak) begin to mix with coniferous species, i.e., a change in coniferous forests occurs mixed. These forests are distributed mainly in the eastern, more continental regions of foreign Europe and on the East European Plain. In the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, spruce-broad-leaved forests predominate, and in the east of the Central European Plain (in Poland), pine dominates instead of spruce.

To the west and south, mixed forests give way to deciduous, among which several types can be distinguished depending on the species composition: oak-birch, oak, beech and beech-birch. Broadleaf forests can be considered the dominant type of natural vegetation in foreign Europe. Modern broadleaf forests in Europe grow in a warm temperate oceanic climate.

Climatic conditions The southern part of the temperate zone in the Atlantic regions of foreign Europe favors the decomposition of fallen leaves and grass cover and the activity of microorganisms. The areas adjacent to the North and Baltic seas are characterized by the distribution of soddy-podzolic soils, and to the south and west - brown forest soils.

A significant portion of modern broadleaf forests is low growing secondary growth, which arose on the site of destroyed high-trunk forests.

The most afforested areas at present are the areas with a predominance of mountainous terrain between the middle reaches of the Rhine and the Russian border. In some places forest cover up to 30 and even 50%. The British Isles, northwestern France, and Jutland are the poorest in forests. The degree of forest cover there is significantly less than 10%. The coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, originally treeless due to strong winds, excessive moisture, acidity or salinity of the soil, or have long been deforested, covered with heather heaths.

In the more eastern regions of Eurasia, broad-leaved forests are replaced by forest-steppes and steppes. The steppes developed widely in the interior regions of Eurasia under conditions of a continental climate and insufficient moisture. In foreign Europe, primordial steppes and forest-steppes existed only on alluvial plains the middle and lower Danube with a temperate continental climate and moderate humidity.

The soils are represented by chernozems of various types: typical chernozems, southern chernozems, leached chernozems.

For the Western, Atlantic, sectors of the subtropical zone on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea with warm, wet winters and dry summers are characterized by special types of soils and vegetation. The floristic composition of Mediterranean vegetation, in addition to modern conditions, is also determined by the presence of ancient tropical elements, both evergreen and deciduous.

Modern climatic conditions (lack of moisture during the period of the most intense solar radiation) have contributed to the development of a number of adaptive traits, reducing evaporation and compensating for the lack of moisture. At the same time, a warm, frost-free and humid winter allows trees and shrubs to retain leaves throughout the year.

The most typical forest formations of the Mediterranean coast are sparse forests from various evergreen oaks: holm, cork, common in the western part, bald; River valleys are characterized by thickets of oleanders that bloom brightly in spring.

Under the Mediterranean vegetation there are brown soils with a well-defined humus horizon. On the weathering crust of limestones are formed red soils.

Dry rocky limestone slopes with intermittent soil cover are characterized by thickets consisting of rare low-growing xerophytic shrubs and subshrubs of the legume, Lamiaceae, cistus, etc. families. In the west (in Spain and France), thickets of this type are called garrigue, on the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor - freegan. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean, shrub thickets are common, consisting not only of evergreens, but also of deciduous species: dwarf trees, sumac, lilacs. These thickets, sometimes found at considerable heights, are called shiblyak.

There is a lot in the Mediterranean barren areas devoid of soil and vegetation. This was largely due to accelerated erosion caused by significant slopes of mountain slopes and rainfall in winter time of the year. On the coastal lowlands and terraced mountain slopes, olive groves, vineyards, fields of wheat and corn are common on carefully cultivated lands. In the southern regions, citrus fruits predominate.

Inland sector Eurasia, which includes the main part of Asia, with the exception of its extreme east and southeast, has significant differences in terms of the species composition of the flora and the distribution of zonal types of soil and vegetation cover. Modern climatic conditions are characterized by continentality and aridity, manifesting themselves from the temperate to tropical zones and intensifying due to the peculiarities of orography. Therefore, in contrast to the Atlantic part, the interior regions of the continent are characterized by a smaller distribution of forest types of soils and vegetation and a wide distribution of steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

For northern part of Asia within Russia, the expansion of tundras and forest-tundras, the spread of taiga, and the absence of mixed and broad-leaved forests are characteristic. A narrow strip of forest-steppe turns into a steppe, which in Asia does not form a continuous strip, interrupted by mountains covered coniferous forest.

In the north of Mongolia, steppe plain areas alternate with mountain ranges overgrown with coniferous forests or covered with mountain-steppe vegetation. The temperate steppes are dominated by varieties of dry cereal and shrub-grass steppes on chestnut soils. To the east, on the plains of Northeast China, as moisture increases, they are replaced by forb-grass steppes on chernozems or chernozem-like soils. This pattern in the distribution of soil types and vegetation is due to the fact that the climate in the temperate zone of Asia is becoming drier and more continental; when moving from the oceans inland, the excess of evaporation over actual evaporation increases and, consequently, the moisture deficit increases. Therefore, changes in soil and vegetation cover along the parallels are much more pronounced in this area than from north to south.

Temperate deserts foreign Asia are formed in a sharply continental climate with hot summers and cold winters, with an annual precipitation of no more than 200 mm. There are vast tracts of unfixed vegetation or overgrown with tamarisk, juzgun and saxaul, as well as areas of rocky and gravelly deserts, almost devoid of soil and vegetation. Soils of different stages of salinity are widespread. The most valuable plant of the Asian deserts is saxaul. Along dry riverbeds, periodically filled with water after rains and often having an underground watercourse, there are oases. The natural vegetation of the oases (tugai) is dominated by reeds and poplars; cultivated plants grown there include grapevines, fruit trees, cotton, and tobacco.

For inner part of the subtropical zone In all these areas of Eurasia, the spring-winter maximum precipitation persists, which significantly affects the nature of vegetation and soils. For areas with humidity over 300 mm per year, gray-brown soils and vegetation of shrubby dry steppes. With precipitation of 300 mm or less, gray soils of subtropical semi-deserts and vegetation of thorny shrubs and low-growing xerophytes develop, adapted to strong evaporation, sharp temperature fluctuations and relatively low temperatures winter. In areas of the Iranian Plateau isolated by mountains, precipitation drops to 100 mm or less. There are rocky and saline sandy deserts, almost devoid of vegetation.

In the more eastern regions of the subtropical zone, the highest highlands of the world rise. They are characterized by cold high deserts with extremely sparse vegetation, which is dominated by hard grasses and thorny bushes. On flat, better moisturized areas, swamps.

Forests in the inland part of the subtropical zone they occupy an insignificant part of the surface. In these areas, they have been preserved since the Neogene. wet forest subtropical landscapes. Vast and dense tracts of deciduous forests with evergreen species of shrubs also grow on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus, the northern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus, the Talysh Mountains and the Elburz ridge, where there is a large amount of precipitation and the climate has not experienced significant changes since pre-glacial times.

Arid conditions persist and V tropical zone Eurasia, covering the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia and a large part of the Indus River basin. In conditions of a dry and hot tropical climate with warm winters, gray-brown soils are formed in the lower parts of mountain slopes, close to the soils of deserts of the subtropical and temperate zones. On the plains vast spaces are occupied sandy and rocky deserts. Among the plants, tough subshrubs and dry grasses predominate.

Vegetation subequatorial and equatorial zones is represented by various types of tropical forests and savanna associations. In the distribution and relationship of these types of vegetation and their corresponding soils, there is a very clear dependence on the amount and period of precipitation, on the topography and underlying rocks. On the Indus and Ganges plains and the Hindustan Peninsula, due to the characteristics of the topography, its interaction with monsoon air currents and the predominance of areas with insufficient moisture, xerophytic formations are more common than in the southeastern regions of Asia.

For natural vegetation Indus and Ganges basins characterized by alternating each other depending on the amount of summer precipitation monsoon forests with a predominance of deciduous species in the upper layers and evergreens in the undergrowth, dry deciduous forests, desertified savannas.

Soils depending on moisture conditions, red lateritic (ferrallitic) soils, under xerophytic forests - brown-red, under dry savannas - red-brown soil

Tropical rainforests grow on the abundantly irrigated slopes of the Himalayas, on the slopes of the Western Ghats, on the Malabar coast and in the southwest of Sri Lanka, i.e. in areas windward of summer monsoons and having the longest rainy season. Trees that grow in the intertidal zone have aerial, stilted roots that allow them to hold onto muddy soil.

In the special conditions of the formation of flora and modern natural vegetation cover there is eastern, Pacific sector of Eurasia. The eastern part of Asia is characterized by monsoon atmospheric circulation, clearly expressed in all climatic zones, and temperature conditions from north to south they change gradually, which is favored by the structure of the surface with a predominance of the submeridional strike of the main orographic elements. The natural sublatitudinal boundary is the Qinling Ridge, but it does not reach the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, the east and southeast of Asia are characterized by the antiquity and richness of flora, the predominance of forest types of soil and vegetation in all latitudes.

In the foreign part of East Asia from north to south there is change in types of soil and vegetation cover from temperate coniferous forests in the north to moist equatorial forests in the south.

Coniferous forests, similar in composition to the forests of Southern Siberia, cover the slopes of the Greater Khingan in the north and the areas adjacent to it from the northeast. Fir, Siberian and local species of spruce, Far Eastern yew and small-leaved trees (birch, alder, aspen, willow) grow. In the more southern islands of Japan, Korea and Northeast China, coniferous forests pass to the upper parts of the mountains, while the lower parts of the mountain slopes and plains were in the past, and partly now, covered with deciduous broad-leaved forests mixed with conifers with rich undergrowth. The main deciduous species in the forests of the region under consideration are oak, beech, maple, ash, linden, and walnut. The most common conifers are pines, fir, spruce, and thuja. Along the river valleys, rich meadow vegetation is developed on alluvial soils.

South of the Qinling Range, in the Yangtze River basin, temperate deciduous forests gradually give way to evergreen subtropical forests on red earth and yellow earth soils. The northern limit of distribution of the latter in East Asia reaches 45° N on the Japanese Islands.

A significant part of the Indochina Peninsula and the islands of the Malay and Philippine archipelagos are covered tropical rainforests. They contain up to 300 species of palm trees.

Eurasia with its richest and most diverse flora is homeland the vast majority of ancestors of cultivated plants and wild species with useful characteristics: rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, rice, many legumes (including soybeans), root vegetables, tea bush, sugar cane, many fruit trees (including citrus fruits), plants used as spices, a huge number of ornamental plants.

Animal world

On northern islands and in the extreme north of the continent, the composition of the fauna remains almost unchanged from west to east. The fauna of tundras and taiga forests has minor internal differences. The fauna of the extreme south of Eurasia is already so specific and so different from the tropical fauna of Africa and even Arabia that they are classified as different zoogeographic regions.

Particularly monotonous throughout Eurasia (as well as North America) tundra fauna.

Most common large mammal tundra - reindeer. It is almost never found in the wild in Europe; This is the most common and valuable domestic animal in the north of Eurasia. The tundra is characterized by arctic fox, lemming and mountain hare.

From land birds the most common are ptarmigan, tundra partridge, plantain and horned lark. For a short time summer period Numerous migratory waterfowl fly to the tundra to breed their chicks: gulls, guillemots, loons, eiders, geese, ducks, swans. Ducks, geese and other birds nest on the banks of lakes, rivers and swamps.

The coastal waters, rivers and lakes of northern Eurasia are rich fish, mainly from the salmon family.

The most typical representatives taiga fauna Eurasia can be considered moose, brown bear, lynx, wolverine, squirrel, chipmunk, bank voles; of birds - black grouse, wood grouse, hazel grouse, crossbills. These animals are common in the lowland taiga, as well as in the coniferous forests of the mountainous regions of Europe and Asia.

The most typical representatives of the forest fauna are: Brown bear, bison, roe deer, red deer, wolverine, pine marten, forest ferret, weasel, wild cat, fox, hedgehog, white hare and brown hare. The brown bear, which completely disappeared on the plains, is still found in the mountains, especially in the Carpathians. Of the endemic mountain species, it should be noted that mountain goats and marmots. Deforestation and plowing of large areas have led to the widespread spread of small rodents - voles, shrews, gophers, which cause great harm to agriculture.

Mixed and broad-leaved forests are inhabited by partridges, black grouse, wood grouse, and hazel grouse, which are valuable game; Many songbirds are also common - blackbirds, orioles, warblers, warblers, etc. Owls, eagle owls, pigeons and cuckoos are also common. Waterfowl nest in ponds. Near settlements Swallows, rooks and storks settle in. Most birds are migratory. In the autumn, caravans of geese, ducks, cranes, flocks of rooks and other birds stretch along strictly defined paths to the south in order to return to their nesting places in the spring.

Rivers and lakes are inhabited mainly by carp fish, but salmon are also found.

Forest fauna of eastern Asia, allocated to the Manchurian-Chinese subregion of the Holarctic, has a pronounced mountain-forest character and is distinguished by great species richness. This is due, on the one hand, to the fact that eastern Asia did not experience significant climate fluctuations during ice age and within its boundaries some representatives of the heat-loving ancient fauna found refuge. On the other hand, the climatic conditions of this part of Asia change gradually from north to south, facilitating the penetration of northern taiga forms to the south, and tropical forms to the north, which creates a mixture of faunas characteristic of East Asia and leads to great species richness.

One of the most characteristic representatives of the fauna mammals mountain forests of China and the Himalayas - black himalayan bear, which lives in the mountains up to an altitude of 4000 m, feeding on plant foods, insects and small animals. The bamboo bear, or giant panda, lives in the bamboo thickets of Eastern Tibet and Southeast China. In the dense riverine bamboo and reed thickets and mountain forests, sometimes rising to the upper border of the forest, there is a tiger - the most dangerous predator Asia, leopard and marten are also found. Typical representatives of the fauna of broad-leaved forests are the raccoon dog and the Far Eastern forest cat. Along the river valleys of China and the Korean Peninsula there is a small antlerless water deer; Sika deer are common in the north. Some monkeys (from the genus macaques) come from South Asia. In the Manchurian-Chinese subregion, at 40° N, lies the northern limit of their distribution on the globe. Representatives of the taiga fauna of the neighboring European-Siberian subregion are the flying squirrel and the chipmunk.

The forests of East Asia are inhabited by various birds. Pheasants stand out with their bright plumage, the motley-colored mandarin duck is the most beautiful representative of this family, the Japanese crane. Various passerines are numerous.

Among reptiles there are many lizards and snakes, which are represented by genera common to the Indo-Malayan region. In addition, there is one species of alligator and a land turtle. From amphibians characteristic tree frogs and the endemic giant salamander living on the Japanese islands.

The fauna of the Mediterranean, the Western Asian highlands and Arabia is unique, making it special Mediterranean subregion Holarctic. The fauna of Southern Europe includes monkeys, primitive predators, birds and a large number of amphibians and reptiles, which are almost completely absent in the more northern parts of Eurasia.

In the Iberian Peninsula and southern France lives a representative of the civet family - the common genet. The south of the Iberian Peninsula is home to the only species of monkey found in the wild in Europe - the macaque macaque, or tailless macaque.

Previously found on the islands, the Corsica and Sardinia wild Mountain sheep. On the islands of the Aegean Sea and in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, wild goats are still found in mountainous areas with very sparse vegetation. Inhabited by the Pyrenean muskrat, porcupine, jackal, and wild rabbit.

Birds of the Mediterranean no less peculiar than mammals. The most characteristic are the blue magpie, mountain hen, Sardinian warbler, Spanish and rock sparrow and many others. Common birds of prey include the black vulture, the vulture, and the vulture, which attack small livestock.

Reptiles. Among them there are endemic forms: gecko lizards, chameleons, Mediterranean viper and some other species of snakes; from land turtles - greek tortoise. Arthropods are also numerous - scorpions, freshwater crabs, various beetles, cicadas, brightly colored butterflies.

Fauna composition Western Asian highlands includes some representatives of the Central Asian subregion, as well as the Ethiopian region of Africa. Ungulates include gazelles, antelopes, wild donkeys, Central Asian mountain sheep and goats. Representatives of the Ethiopian region are peculiar ungulates - hyraxes, living in rocky mountainous areas at considerable altitude. Common predators include leopards, lynx, caracal, jackal, hyena, and some types of foxes. Rodents are numerous - hares, jerboas, gerbils, and one species of porcupine. Among the birds of Western Asia there are many representatives of the Central Asian deserts and steppes: bustards, sandgrouses, larks, desert jays, etc. Herons, flamingos, and pelicans are found near reservoirs. The variety of reptiles is also very large, especially lizards and snakes: steppe boa constrictor, viper, snakes, grass snakes. Characterized by an abundance of arthropods, among them phalanges, scorpions, tarantulas. Agricultural crops are periodically affected by locusts.

Desert plateaus and mountain ranges Central Asia They have a unique fauna and are classified as a special Central Asian zoogeographical subregion. It is characterized by a general relative poverty of species composition and a predominance of ungulates and rodents, which are adapted to exist in the vast treeless and waterless spaces of the central regions of Asia.

Only in Tibet is the wild yak found. On the Tibetan Plateau and in the mountains of Central Asia, orongo, addax, mountain sheep argali, or argali, reaching enormous sizes, and mountain goats are widespread. The steppe and semi-desert plains of Mongolia and Northwestern China are home to gazelle, wild ass, the extremely rare kiang, and the wild Bactrian Bactrian camel.

Predators are not as diverse in Central Asia as ungulates. Found in the mountains Snow Leopard snow leopard, Tibetan subspecies of brown bear and wolf. Foxes, common wolves, weasels, and jackals are found almost everywhere.

On the plains and in the mountainous regions, both in the number of species and in the number of individuals, rodents are abundantly represented.

Birds are especially diverse in mountainous regions. These are mountain snowcocks, alpine jackdaws, vultures, lambsworts, choughs, and wallcreepers. On the plains there are bustards, hazel grouses, and larks (lesser, crested, etc.).

Reptiles and amphibians there are few in Central Asia. Some lizards and snakes are common, as is the land turtle.

The rest of southern Eurasia is included within Indo-Malayan zoogeographic region and is characterized by particularly great richness, diversity and antiquity of the animal world.

The most prominent representatives ungulates of the Malay Archipelago - black-backed, or two-colored, tapir, which has relatives in South America, one-horned Indian and two-horned Sumatran rhinoceroses, wild banteng bull, Indian buffalo, gaur.

From predators Malayan short-haired "sun" bear and tiger. On the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan there is an ape called the orangutan (“forest man”), which is now extremely rare.

A feature of the fauna of the islands is the presence of a large number of species " planning» animals. Among them are mammals - flying squirrels and woolly wings, which are a form intermediate between insectivores, bats and prosimians; reptiles - flying dragon.

Among birds remarkable are the bright pheasant great argus, the blue-winged peacock and natives of Australia - birds of paradise and big-legged chickens.

Reptiles amaze with the abundance of species and large size. On the small island of Komodo lives the greatest living lizard - the giant Komodo dragon. A large gharial crocodile lives in the rivers of Kalimantan. There are many poisonous snakes, of which the most dangerous to humans are spectacled snakes, or cobras. Boa constrictors are also common.

Among the various arthropods Large and brightly colored butterflies are especially significant. Scorpions and huge tarantula spiders are also common.

Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands in zoological terms they occupy a special place. Sulawesi's endemic animals include the babirussa wild pig, anoa pygmy buffalo and black macaque, and representatives Australian fauna - marsupial cuscus, big-footed chickens and many other birds.

In a special Indian sub-region highlight India, Sri Lanka and Indochina. The fauna of this subregion, along with many typical representatives of the Indo-Malayan region, includes people from the Ethiopian region and the Holarctic. The fauna of the Indian subregion is distinguished by species diversity and large in number individuals. This is especially true in India, where the killing of any living beings is prohibited by religion, so even harmful animals are very rarely exterminated here.

The fauna of India and Indochina is characterized by the presence of the Indian elephant. Wild elephants are still found in sparsely populated areas of the Himalayan foothills, in the forests of Sri Lanka and other places. The domestic elephant, accustomed to perform difficult and complex work, is one of the most typical animals of India and the countries of Indochina.

The local population also domesticates wild bull- gaura. The Indian buffalo is domesticated and widely distributed as draft cattle. Wild Indian boar is often found in the dense riverine thickets. In those areas where significant tracts of forest have been preserved, large nilgai and four-horned antelope, muntjac and axis deer live. The most common predators are the tiger, leopard and special shape leopard - black panther, causing significant damage to livestock. Within the Thar Desert, a lion is occasionally found, which came here from the Ethiopian region.

India and Indochina are characterized by abundance monkeys, which are distributed everywhere: in forests, savannas, gardens, near populated areas and even in cities.

A real disaster for the local population is the abundance of various reptiles, especially poisonous snakes, whose bites kill thousands of people every year. Giant crocodiles live in the waters of the Ganges and other large rivers.

The brightness of the plumage and variety of shapes amazes world of birds. Among them are the common peacock, pheasant, species of wild chickens, various thrushes, etc. Of the insects, there are especially many different motley-colored butterflies and giant tarantula spiders that feed on small birds. In India there is a wild bee - the ancestor of the domestic bee.

Direct destruction of valuable species of plants and animals (hunting, poaching, illegal trade), and most importantly, changes in their habitats as a result anthropogenic impact , led to the fact that many species of Eurasian fauna were endangered. These are 471 species of mammals, 389 species of birds, 276 species of fish, 85 species of reptiles and 33 species of amphibians.

examples of biomes

Everglades tropical swamps: Florida, USA

The Everglades is a special tropical biome (ecoregion), historically occupying the southern quarter of the Florida peninsula, now located within the US state of the same name (formerly within Spanish Florida). A significant part of the region has already been influenced economic activity people (drainage, mass housing development). However, to protect the nature of part of the region in 1947, the US government organized the so-called National Park Everglades, the area of ​​which reached about 566,796 hectares (as of 1977).

Main natural areas of the Everglades: tropical forests in the north, mangroves along the coast Gulf of Mexico and swamps overgrown with thorny cladium (“saw grass”).

Characteristic:
As a biome, the Everglades are a large tropical swamp occupying flat, low-lying (about 1-2 m above sea level) terrain in the southern quarter of the U.S. state of Florida, primarily in Monroe, Collier, Palm Beach, Miami-Dade and Broward counties. The area has a slight slope towards the southeast with a weak current, fed by the fresh waters of the Kissimee River, flowing along the internal axis of the peninsula from north to south.
Zoning: There are several areas in the Everglades:
Lake Okeechobee;
the actual swampy lowland of the Everglades, overgrown with cladium;
A large cypress swamp, covered with swamp cypresses and Spanish moss;
raised sandy shores and Atlantic Ocean beaches;
"Ten Thousand Islands" marshy islets and estuaries along the Gulf Coast;
shallows and coastal spits of Florida Bay.
Flora and fauna
The fauna of the region is rich mainly in ornithological terms (birds). From rare species There are slug-eating kites, wood storks, pelicans, cormorants, etc. The following rare mammals are protected: manatees, Florida puma. Previously protected alligators have multiplied so much that they often threaten humans and enter the swimming pools of residential areas on the outskirts of the swamp. Lots of amphibians. Large mammals There are few animals in the Everglades swamps. This is explained by the peculiar vegetation of the region. The fact is that the predominant cladiums have long, narrow, sharp-edged or jagged stems up to 1-3 m high. In the southern part of Florida, cladiums are widely found in the Everglades wetlands, where they form rugged prairies. Since the lateral edges of the leaf are pointed and, when moving, they easily damage the soft tissues of mammals and especially human skin. Because of this, cladium received the name saw-grass or sword-grass; also called tropical sedge, serrated sedge, serrated sedge, saw sedge. The main large inhabitants of the swampy cladium prairies are thick-skinned shelled turtles, crocodiles, and alligators, so there are practically no mammals in the cladium prairies. In the future, it is possible to use cladium as a biological source for ethanol production. There are a lot of crabs in the mangrove forests, and sharks also come into the shallow waters.

Subtropical fynbos: Cape region of South Africa

Fynbos is a type of shrubby vegetation that predominates in the Cape region of South Africa, the most species-rich floristic kingdom on the planet. Covers an area of ​​46,000 km². A similar but less species-rich vegetation type occurs in the Mediterranean (where it is called maquis), central Chile, south-east and south-west Australia, American state California, where, as in the places where fynbos grows, the Mediterranean climate (subtropics) predominates.
Story:
This name was given to the fynbos by the first Dutch settlers of the Cape Colony. This is how they named the vegetation, unusual for the Netherlands, which predominates in the Cape Town area. In Afrikaans, the word fynbos means "small bush" or "small woodland".
Geography:
Like the Cape region itself, the fynbos that is part of it stretches in a coastal strip 100-200 km wide along the coast of the Atlantic and Indian oceans from Clanwilliam in the west to Port Elizabeth in the east, occupying 50% of the area of ​​the Cape region and containing 80% its plant species. Species diversity decreases as you move from west to east of the region. Fynbos contains up to 9,000 plant species, 6,200 of which are endemic, and is the world's most diverse biome. For example, in the area of ​​Cape Town and Table Mountain alone there are 2,200 plant species, which is more than in the whole of Great Britain or Holland (1,400 species). Fynbos occupies only 6% of the territory of South Africa and 0.5% of the territory of Africa, but about 20% of African plant species grow in it.
Botany:
Like maquis, fynbos consists primarily of evergreen hard-leaved plants that are cold-hardy in winter and heat-hardy in summer. Species from the families Proteaceae, Ericaceae, and Restiaceae dominate. Gladioli and lilies (including lachenalia) are common. There are more than 1,400 species of bulbous plants.
Bio-update:
From a human point of view, fynbos bushes are extremely fire hazardous, but fire for fynbos is a natural source of vegetation renewal and enrichment of the soil with minerals necessary for the germination of new seeds. Recently, the fynbos has suffered greatly from human influence, including from acclimatized species such as pine and acacia. To protect the fynbos, nature reserves have been created in many places.

Monsoon forests are vast green areas with lush vegetation and rich wildlife. During the rainy season, they resemble equatorial evergreen forests. Found in subequatorial and tropical climates. They attract tourists and photographers with a variety of picturesque landscapes.

Description

Monsoon rainforests are most common in the tropics. Most often they are located at an altitude of 850 meters above sea level. They are also called deciduous because the trees lose their leaves during periods of drought. Heavy rains return them to their former richness and color. The trees here reach a height of twenty meters, the leaves on the crowns are small. Evergreen species and many lianas and epiphytes are common in the undergrowth. Orchids grow in the monsoon zone. They are found in the Brazilian coastal mountain ranges, the Himalayas, Malaysia, Mexico, and Indochina.

Peculiarities

Monsoon forests in the Far East are famous for their diversity of plants and animals. Warm and humid summers and an abundance of plant food create favorable conditions for the habitat of insects, birds, and mammals. Coniferous and broad-leaved trees are found here. Among the inhabitants of the forests, sable, squirrel, chipmunk, hazel grouse, as well as animals rare for climate zone Russia. Typical inhabitants of monsoon forests are the Ussuri tiger, black bear, sika deer, wolf, and raccoon dog. There are many wild boars, hares, moles, and pheasants on the territory. Reservoirs subequatorial climate are rich in fish. Some species are protected.

Rare orchids grow in the humid forests of Brazil, Mexico, and Indochina. About sixty percent are sympodial species, well known among gardeners. The red-yellow soils of monsoon areas are favorable for ficus, palm trees, valuable species trees. The most famous ones include teak, satin, tallow, and iron. For example, it is capable of forming a dark grove from its trunks. In Indian botanical garden a huge banyan tree grows, which has almost two thousand (!) trunks. The crown of the tree covers an area of ​​twelve thousand square meters. Variably humid forests become the habitat of bamboo bears (pandas), salamanders, tigers, leopards, poisonous insects and snakes.

Climate

Which one prevails? monsoon forests? Winters here are mostly dry, summers are not hot, but warm. The dry period lasts three to four months. average temperature the air is lower than in the humid tropics: the absolute minimum is -25 degrees, the maximum is 35 with a “+” sign. The temperature difference ranges from eight to twelve degrees. Characteristic climate - long rainfalls in summer and their absence in winter. The difference between the two opposite seasons is huge.

Monsoon forests are known for their morning fog and low clouds. This is why the air is so saturated with moisture. By noon bright sun completely evaporates moisture from vegetation. In the afternoon, a foggy haze forms in the forests again. High air humidity and cloudiness persist for a long period of time. In winter, precipitation also falls, but rarely.

Geography

IN subequatorial zone, due to large amounts of precipitation and its uneven distribution, high temperature contrast, monsoon forests develop. On the territory of Russia, they grow in the Far East, have a complex topography, and a rich flora and fauna. There are humid forests in Indochina, Hindustan, the Philippine Islands, Asia, North and South America, and Africa. Despite the long rainy seasons and prolonged drought, the fauna in monsoon forest zones is poorer than in humid equatorial zones.

The most pronounced phenomenon of monsoons is on the Indian continent, where a period of drought is replaced by heavy downpours, the duration of which can be seven months. This change in weather is typical for Indochina, Burma, Indonesia, Africa, Madagascar, northern and eastern Australia, and Oceania. For example, in Indochina and the Hindustan Peninsula, the dry period in forests lasts seven months (from April to October). Trees with large crowns and an irregular arch grow in vast monsoon areas. Sometimes forests grow in tiers, which is especially noticeable from above.

The soil

Monsoon wet soils are characterized by a red tint, granular structure, and low humus content. The soil is rich in useful microelements such as iron and silicon. There is very little sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium in moist soil. In Southeast Asia, yellow soils and red soils predominate. Central Africa and are characterized by dry black soil. Interestingly, as the rains stop, the concentration of humus in monsoon forests increases. The reserve is one of the forms of protection wildlife in an area rich in valuable plants and animals. It is in humid forests that many species of orchids are found.

Plants and fauna

Monsoon forests in the subequatorial climate of Hindustan, China, Indochina, Australia, America, Africa, and the Far East (Russia) are characterized by a diversity of fauna. For example, in Southeast Asia, teak trees are common in variable humid zones, as are Indochinese laurel and ebony. There are also bamboo, vines, butea, and cereals. Many trees in forests are highly valued for their healthy and durable wood. For example, teak bark is dense and resistant to destruction by termites and fungi. Sal forests grow at the southern foot of the Himalayas. In the monsoon regions of Central America there are many thorny bushes. Grows in humid climate and valuable jat wood.

In subequatorial climates, fast-growing trees are common. Palms, acacias, baobab, spurge, cecropium, entandrophragma, ferns predominate, and there are many other types of plants and flowers. The humid climate zone is characterized by a wide variety of birds and insects. Woodpeckers, parrots, toucans, and butterflies are found in the forests. Among the terrestrial animals found in monsoon woodland are marsupials, elephants, various representatives of the cat family, freshwater, amphibians, frogs, and snakes. This world is truly bright and rich.

Since Eurasia lies in all climatic zones of the northern hemisphere, all natural zones are represented here globe.

Arctic deserts, tundra and forest-tundra

Zones of arctic deserts, tundra and forest-tundra stretch in a narrow continuous strip across the entire continent. The climate of the Arctic deserts is very strict. The vegetation is very poor. Large areas have no vegetation cover.

Here we meet the arctic fox, polar bear, reindeer. In summer, many waterfowl arrive; they settle on high rocky shores, forming bird colonies.

In the tundra there is little precipitation, temperatures are low, and permafrost is characteristic, which contributes to the formation of swamps.

Taiga

There are many peat and sedge bogs here. The European taiga is dominated by pine and spruce. They are mixed with small-leaved species - birch, aspen, rowan. South of 60°N. w. broad-leaved species appear in the forests - maple, ash, oak. Fir trees grow in the Asian taiga, Siberian pine or cedar, as well as larch - the only conifer tree, sheds its needles for the winter.

The fauna of coniferous forests is very rich. It is home to elk, squirrel, mountain hare and forest lemming. The most common predators are wolf, fox, lynx, pine marten, ferret, weasel and brown bear. Otters live in ponds. Among the birds, the most numerous are crossbills, woodpeckers, ptarmigan, wood grouse, black grouse, hazel grouse and owls.

Mixed forests

Main part mixed forests in Europe is located on the East European Plain and gradually disappears in westward. In these forests, broad-leaved species grow alongside coniferous and small-leaved species. There is already abundant grass cover on soddy-podzolic soils, and swamps are less common. In Asia there is also a zone of mixed forests, but it appears only in the Pacific sector of the temperate zone, where forests grow in conditions monsoon climate, and their composition is more diverse.

Western, Atlantic broad-leaved forests are characterized by beech and oak. As we move east and the amount of precipitation decreases, beech forests are replaced by lighter oak forests.

Hornbeam, linden, and maple grow in broad-leaved forests. In addition to animals living in the taiga, there are wild boar, roe deer, and deer. The brown bear is found in the Carpathians and Alps.

Forest-steppe and steppe

In the forest-steppe, islands of forests on gray forest soils alternate with steppe areas. The steppes are dominated by herbaceous vegetation. Various grasses are most common in the grass cover.

Among the animals, rodents predominate - gophers, marmots, field mice. Natural vegetation has been preserved only in nature reserves.

In the eastern part of the Gobi Plateau there are dry steppes: the grass is low or the soil surface is completely devoid of grass cover, and there are saline areas.

Semi-deserts and temperate deserts

These zones extend from Caspian lowland across the plains of Central and Central Asia. Brown semi-desert soils and brown and gray-brown desert soils are developed here.

In deserts, conditions are unfavorable for plant development: little rainfall and dry air. In clayey and rocky deserts there is no soil cover of vegetation. IN sandy deserts In the temperate zone, saxaul, wormwood, solyanka, and astragalus grow.

The fauna of these zones is also poor. In semi-deserts and deserts the Przewalski's horse, wild kulan donkeys, camels, and various and numerous rodents are still preserved.

Subtropical forests and shrubs

A zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs stretches along the Mediterranean coast. The climatic conditions of the zone are characterized by dry and hot summers, rainy and warm winters.

Holm and cork oaks, wild olive, Mediterranean pine, and cypress grow on chestnut soils. The forests on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea are now almost completely cut down. Now there are thickets of evergreen bushes and low trees growing here.

In southern China and Japanese Islands lies a zone of variable-humid (monsoon) forests. Summers here are humid, winters are relatively dry and cool. In the forests on red soils and yellow soils, magnolias, palm trees, ficuses, camellias, camphor laurel grow, and bamboo is found.

Subtropical and tropical semi-deserts and deserts

Inland deserts feature hot and dry climates throughout Eurasia. The average July temperature can reach +30 °C. It rains extremely rarely.

The plants in these zones are the same as those in temperate deserts. Acacias grow along dry riverbeds, and date palms are grown in oases.

The fauna of deserts is relatively poor. In Arabia there are wild Przewalski's horses, wild ass, fleet-footed antelopes, and wild donkeys and onagers. There are also predators - striped hyena, jackal. Lots of rodents - jerboas, gerbils.

Savannas and subequatorial forests

In the savannas of Eurasia, palm trees, acacias, teak and sal trees grow among tall grasses. There are areas of sparse forests. Subequatorial humid variable-humid forests cover the western coast of Hindustan, the region of the lower reaches of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, the coast of the Indochina Peninsula and the northern part of the Philippine Islands. The vegetation of the zone resembles southern equatorial rainforests, but some trees shed their leaves during the dry season.

The fauna of savannas and subequatorial forests is diverse. Many ungulates, especially antelopes, many monkeys. Tigers and leopards hunt along the rivers of Hindustan. Wild elephants still live in Hindustan and on the island of Sri Lanka.

Equatorial rainforests

In Eurasia they occupy quite a lot large areas and varied. There are more than 300 species of palm trees alone. The coconut palm grows on the coast of the Philippine Islands and the Malay Archipelago. IN equatorial forests Numerous types of bamboos grow.

Altitudinal zone

Brighter altitudinal zonations were found in the Alps and Himalayas - the highest mountain systems in Europe and Asia. The highest mountains of Europe are the Alps. Their highest point, Mont Blanc, reaches an altitude of 4807 m. In addition, this mountain system is an important climate for Europe. Glaciers and eternal snow decrease in the Alps to 2500-3200 m.

The highest mountain system in Asia and the entire globe is the Himalayas. Their highest point is the city of Chomolungma. The Himalayas are the natural boundary between the mountainous deserts of Central Asia and the tropical landscapes of South Asia.

At the foot of the Eastern Himalayas are the Terai. Tall bamboo, various palm trees, and sal tree grow in them. Elephants, rhinoceroses, buffaloes live here, among the predators are tigers, spotted and black leopards, many monkeys, and snakes. Above 1500 m and up to 2000 m there is a belt of evergreen subtropical forests. At an altitude of 2000 m, these forests give way to forests of deciduous species with an admixture of conifers. Above 3500 m the belt of bushes and alpine meadows begins.

On the southern slopes of the Alps, the landscapes of the lower altitude zone up to an altitude of 800 m they have Mediterranean features. IN northern regions In the lower belt of the Western Alps, beech and mixed forests predominate; in the drier eastern Alps, oak and pine forests alternate with steppe meadows. Up to an altitude of 1800 m, a second zone with oak and beech forests with the participation of coniferous trees is common.

The subalpine belt extends to an altitude of 2300 m - shrub and tall grass meadow vegetation predominates. In the alpine belt, most of the mountain surface is devoid of vegetation or covered with crustose lichens. The upper belt is a belt of high-mountain rocky and glacial deserts, in which higher plants and animals are practically absent. The Alps are one of the most important recreational areas in Europe.

Changing nature by man

Over the course of historical time, the natural conditions of the continent have been changed by man. In many areas, natural vegetation has been almost completely destroyed and replaced by cultivated vegetation. The steppe and forest-steppe zones were especially affected.

In many cases, irreversible changes have occurred in nature, many species of plants and animals have been destroyed, and soils have been depleted. Created to preserve nature National parks, nature reserves and other protected areas.